The Trichothecenes and Their Biosynthesis

Mushroom Toxins: Chemistry and Toxicology

Mushroom consumption is a global tradition that is still gaining popularity. However, foraging for wild mushrooms and accidental ingestion of toxic mushrooms can result in serious illness and even death. The early diagnosis and treatment of mushroom poisoning are quite difficult, as the symptoms are similar to those caused by common diseases. Chemically, mushroom poisoning is related to very powerful toxins, suggesting that the isolation and identification of toxins have great research value, especially in determining the lethal components of toxic mushrooms. In contrast, most of these toxins have remarkable physiological properties that could promote advances in chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, and pharmacology. Although more than 100 toxins have been elucidated, there are a number of lethal mushrooms that have not been fully investigated. This review provides information on the chemistry (including chemical structures, total synthesis, and biosynthesis) and the toxicology of these toxins, hoping to inspire further research in this area.

Mycotoxin Biotransformation by Native and Commercial Enzymes: Present and Future Perspectives

Worldwide mycotoxins contamination has a significant impact on animal and human health, and leads to economic losses accounted for billions of dollars annually. Since the application of pre- and post- harvest strategies, including chemical or physical removal, are not sufficiently effective, biological transformation is considered the most promising yet challenging approach to reduce mycotoxins accumulation. Although several microorganisms were reported to degrade mycotoxins, only a few enzymes have been identified, purified and characterized for this activity. This review focuses on the biotransformation of mycotoxins performed with purified enzymes isolated from bacteria, fungi and plants, whose activity was validated in in vitro and in vivo assays, including patented ones and commercial preparations. Furthermore, we will present some applications for detoxifying enzymes in food, feed, biogas and biofuel industries, describing their limitation and potentialities.

Methylthiodeoxynivalenol (MTD): insight into the chemistry, structure and toxicity of thia-Michael adducts of trichothecenes

Methylthiodeoxynivalenol (MTD), a novel derivative of the trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON), was prepared by applying a reliable procedure for the formal Michael addition of methanethiol to the conjugated double bond of DON. Structure elucidation revealed the preferred formation of the hemiketal form of MTD by intramolecular cyclisation between C8 and C15. Computational investigations showed a negative total reaction energy for the hemiketalisation step and its decrease in comparison with theoretical model compounds. Therefore, this structural behaviour seems to be a general characteristic of thia-Michael adducts of type B trichothecenes. MTD was shown to be less inhibitory for a reticulocyte lysate based in vitro translation system than the parent compound DON, which supports the hypothesis that trichothecenes are detoxified through thia-adduct formation during xenobiotic metabolism.

Simultaneous determination of major type A and B trichothecenes, zearalenone and certain modified metabolites in Finnish cereal grains with a novel liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method

A reliable and sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method was developed for the simultaneous quantitative determination in cereals of the Fusarium mycotoxins HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and zearalenone, as well as the modified metabolites 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, HT-2-3-glucoside, nivalenol-3-glucoside, zearalenone-14-glucoside, zearalenone-14-sulphate, zearalenone-16-glucoside, α-zearalenol-14-glucoside and β-zearalenol-14-glucoside. The ‘dilute and shoot’ approach was used for sample preparation after extraction with acetonitrile:water:acetic acid (79:20:1, v/v/v). Separation was carried out using reversed-phase liquid chromatography, and detection was performed using tandem mass spectrometry in the selected reaction monitoring mode. The method was in-house validated according to performance characteristics, established in Commission Regulation EC No 401/2006 and Commission Decision EC No 657/2002, prior to its application in a nationwide survey for the analysis of barley, oat and wheat samples (n = 95) harvested in Finland during 2013. Deoxynivalenol and its glucosylated form were the most abundant of the analytes, being detected in 93 and 81 % of the samples, respectively. Concentrations of deoxynivalenol were unusually high in 2013, especially in oats, with some cases exceeding the maximum legislative limits for unprocessed oats placed on the market for first-stage processing. All modified mycotoxins analysed were detected, and the natural occurrence of some of these compounds (e.g. zearalenone-16-glucoside and nivalenol-3-glucoside) in barley, oats and/or wheat was documented for the first time.

Traversing the fungal terpenome

Fungi (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota) are prolific producers of structurally diverse terpenoid compounds. Classes of terpenoids identified in fungi include the sesqui-, di- and triterpenoids. Biosynthetic pathways and enzymes to terpenoids from each of these classes have been described. These typically involve the scaffold generating terpene synthases and cyclases, and scaffold tailoring enzymes such as e.g. cytochrome P450 monoxygenases, NAD(P)+ and flavin dependent oxidoreductases, and various group transferases that generate the final bioactive structures. The biosynthesis of several sesquiterpenoid mycotoxins and bioactive diterpenoids has been well-studied in Ascomycota (e.g. filamentous fungi). Little is known about the terpenoid biosynthetic pathways in Basidiomycota (e.g. mushroom forming fungi), although they produce a huge diversity of terpenoid natural products. Specifically, many trans-humulyl cation derived sesquiterpenoid natural products with potent bioactivities have been isolated. Biosynthetic gene clusters responsible for the production of trans-humulyl cation derived protoilludanes, and other sesquiterpenoids, can be rapidly identified by genome sequencing and bioinformatic methods. Genome mining combined with heterologous biosynthetic pathway refactoring has the potential to facilitate discovery and production of pharmaceutically relevant fungal terpenoids.

Molecular and Genetic Studies ofFusariumTrichothecene Biosynthesis: Pathways, Genes, and Evolution

Trichothecenes are a large family of sesquiterpenoid secondary metabolites of Fusarium species (e.g., F. graminearum) and other molds. They are major mycotoxins that can cause serious problems when consumed via contaminated cereal grains. In the past 20 years, an outline of the trichothecene biosynthetic pathway has been established based on the results of precursor feeding experiments and blocked mutant analyses. Following the isolation of the pathway gene Tri5 encoding the first committed enzyme trichodiene synthase, 10 biosynthesis genes (Tri genes; two regulatory genes, seven pathway genes, and one transporter gene) were functionally identified in the Tri5 gene cluster. At least three pathway genes, Tri101 (separated alone), and Tri1 and Tri16 (located in the Tri1-Tri16 two-gene cluster), were found outside of the Tri5 gene cluster. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the pathways of biosynthesis, the functions of cloned Tri genes, and the evolution of Tri genes, focusing on Fusarium species.

Functional characterization of two clusters of Brachypodium distachyon UDP-glycosyltransferases encoding putative deoxynivalenol detoxification genes

Plant small-molecule UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGT) glycosylate a vast number of endogenous substances but also act in detoxification of metabolites produced by plant-pathogenic microorganisms. The ability to inactivate the Fusarium graminearum mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) into DON-3-O-glucoside is crucial for resistance of cereals. We analyzed the UGT gene family of the monocot model species Brachypodium distachyon and functionally characterized two gene clusters containing putative orthologs of previously identified DON-detoxification genes from Arabidopsis thaliana and barley. Analysis of transcription showed that UGT encoded in both clusters are highly inducible by DON and expressed at much higher levels upon infection with a wild-type DON-producing F. graminearum strain compared with infection with a mutant deficient in DON production. Expression of these genes in a toxin-sensitive strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae revealed that only two B. distachyon UGT encoded by members of a cluster of six genes homologous to the DON-inactivating barley HvUGT13248 were able to convert DON into DON-3-O-glucoside. Also, a single copy gene from Sorghum bicolor orthologous to this cluster and one of three putative orthologs of rice exhibit this ability. Seemingly, the UGT genes undergo rapid evolution and changes in copy number, making it difficult to identify orthologs with conserved substrate specificity.

Trichothecene toxicity in eukaryotes: cellular and molecular mechanisms in plants and animals

Trichothecenes are sesquiterpenoid mycotoxins commonly found as contaminants in cereal grains and are a major health and food safety concern due to their toxicity to humans and farm animals. Trichothecenes are predominantly produced by the phytopathogenic Fusarium fungus, and in plants they act as a virulence factor aiding the spread of the fungus during disease development. Known for their inhibitory effect on eukaryotic protein synthesis, trichothecenes also induce oxidative stress, DNA damage and cell cycle arrest and affect cell membrane integrity and function in eukaryotic cells. In animals, trichothecenes can be either immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive and induce apoptosis via mitochondria-mediated or -independent pathway. In plants, trichothecenes induce programmed cell death via production of reactive oxygen species. Recent advances in molecular techniques have led to the elucidation of signal transduction pathways that manifest trichothecene toxicity in eukaryotes. In animals, trichothecenes induce mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling cascades via ribotoxic stress response and/or endoplasmic reticulum stress response. The upstream signalling events that lead to the activation trichothecene-induced ribotoxic stress response are discussed. In plants, trichothecenes exhibit elicitor-like activity leading to the inductions MAPKs and genes involved in oxidative stress, cell death and plant defence response. Trichothecenes might also modulate hormone-mediated defence signalling and abiotic stress signalling in plants.

Structure determination of two new trichothecenes from a halotolerant fungus Myrothecium sp. GS-17 by NMR spectroscopy

Two new trichothecenes, named 8α-hydroxyroridin H and myrothecin A, along with six known compounds, 8α-acetoxy roridin H, isororidin K, verrucarin A, verrucarin J, verrucarin L and 8α-acetoxy verrucarin L, were isolated from the fermentation broth of a halotolerant fungus Myrothecium sp. GS-17, which was separated from the soil sample of a salina. Structure elucidation and NMR signal assignments were achieved on the basis of spectroscopy. In addition, compounds 1 and 2 were active against plant pathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum.

Trichothecenes: from simple to complex mycotoxins

As the world's population grows, access to a safe food supply will continue to be a global priority. In recent years, the world has experienced an increase in mycotoxin contamination of grains due to climatic and agronomic changes that encourage fungal growth during cultivation. A number of the molds that are plant pathogens produce trichothecene mycotoxins, which are known to cause serious human and animal toxicoses. This review covers the types of trichothecenes, their complexity, and proposed biosynthetic pathways of trichothecenes.

Transcriptome analysis of the barley-deoxynivalenol interaction: evidence for a role of glutathione in deoxynivalenol detoxification

Trichothecenes are a major group of toxins produced by phytopathogenic fungi, including Fusarium graminearum. Trichothecenes inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells and are toxicologically relevant mycotoxins for humans and animals. Because they promote plant disease, the role of host responses to trichothecene accumulation is considered to be an important aspect of plant defense and resistance to fungal infection. Our overall objective was to examine the barley response to application of the type B trichothecene deoxynivalenol (DON). We found that DON is diluted by movement from the application site to acropetal and basipetal florets. A susceptible barley genotype converted DON to DON-3-O-glucoside, indicating that UDP-glucosyltransferases capable of detoxifying DON must exist in barley. RNA profiling of DON-treated barley spikes revealed strong upregulation of gene transcripts encoding ABC transporters, UDP-glucosyltransferases, cytochrome P450s, and glutathione-S-transferases. We noted that transcripts encoding cysteine synthases were dramatically induced by DON, and that toxin-sensitive yeast on glutathione- or cysteine-supplemented media or carrying a gene that encodes a cysteine biosynthetic enzyme exhibit DON resistance, suggesting that preventing glutathione depletion by increasing cysteine supply could play a role in ameliorating the impact of DON. Evidence for nonenzymatic formation of DON-glutathione adducts in vitro was found using both liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis, indicating that the formation of DON-glutathione conjugates in vivo may reduce the impact of trichothecenes. Our results indicate that barley exhibits multiple defense mechanisms against trichothecenes.

A chemical screen for suppressors of the avrRpm1-RPM1-dependent hypersensitive cell death response in Arabidopsis thaliana

Arabidopsis thaliana RPM1 encodes an intracellular immune sensor that conditions disease resistance to Pseudomonas syringae expressing the type III effector protein AvrRpm1. Conditional expression of this type III effector in a transgenic line carrying avrRpm1 under the control of a steroid-inducible promoter results in RPM1-dependent cell death that resembles the cell death response of the incompatible RPM1-avrRpm1 plant-bacterium interaction. This line was previously used in a genetic screen, which revealed two genes that likely function in the folding of pre-activation RPM1. We established a chemical screen for small molecules that suppress steroid-inducible and RPM1-avrRpm1-dependent cell death in Arabidopsis seedlings. Screening of a library comprising 6,800 compounds of natural origin identified two trichothecene-type mycotoxins, 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and neosolaniol (NEO), which are synthesized by Fusarium and other fungal species. However, protein blot analysis revealed that DAS and NEO inhibit AvrRpm1 synthesis rather than suppress RPM1-mediated responses. This inhibition of translational activity likely explains the survival of the seedlings under screening conditions. Likewise, flg22-induced defense responses are also impaired at the translational, but not the transcriptional, level by DAS or NEO. Unexpectedly, both compounds not only prevented AvrRpm1 synthesis, but rather caused an apparent hyper-accumulation of RPM1 and HSP70. The hyper-accumulation phenotype is likely unrelated to the ribotoxic function of DAS and NEO and could be due to an inhibitory activity on the proteolytic machinery of Arabidopsis or elicitor-like activities of type A trichothecenes.

Purification and comparative neurotoxicity of the trichothecenes satratoxin G and roridin L2 from Stachybotrys chartarum

Satratoxin G (SG), a macrocyclic trichothecene produced by Stachybotrys chartarum, induces apoptosis in cultured neuronal cells as well as nasal olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) in the nose and brain of mice exposed intranasally to this toxin. The purposes of this study were to (1) develop a facile method for production and purification of both SG and its putative biosynthetic precursor, roridin L2 (RL2), from S. chartarum cultures and (2) compare their relative neurotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. Stachybotrys chartarum 29-58-17 was cultured in Fernbach flasks on rice (5 x 10(5) spores/250 g rice) for 4 to 6 wk. Following extraction with acetonitrile, the extract was dried, dissolved in dichloromethane, and subjected to Michel-Miller silica-gel chromatography using a stepwise acetonitrile-dichloromethane gradient with SG and RL2 eluting in the 30 and 40% acetonitrile fractions, respectively. Purification of the two compounds was completed by C18 semipreparative reverse-phase liquid chromatography using an acetonitrile-water gradient, and purity was confirmed by electrospray ionization/collision-induced dissociation (ESI-CID) tandem mass spectroscopy. Although viability significantly decreased in PC-12 neuronal cells treated with 10 to 25 ng/ml of SG, RL2 at concentrations up to 1000 ng/ml was not toxic. Flow cytometry and agarose DNA fragmentation assays revealed that SG at 10 to 25 ng/ml induced apoptotic death in the PC-12 cells, while RL2 at concentrations up to 1000 ng/ml was without effect. In a similar fashion, intranasal exposure of mice (female B6C3F1) to SG at 100 microg/kg body weight (bw) induced marked OSN apoptosis and atrophy of the olfactory epithelium, whereas RL2 at the equivalent dose did not exhibit toxicity. Taken together, an optimized protocol for production and isolation of trichothecenes from S. chartarum cultures is described and further demonstrates that while the macrocyclic SG was neurotoxic in vitro and in vivo, its biosynthetic precursor, RL2, was nontoxic.

Development of a generic PCR detection of 3-acetyldeoxy-nivalenol-, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol- and nivalenol-chemotypes of Fusarium graminearum Clade

Fusarium graminearum clade pathogens cause Fusarium head blight (FHB) or scab of wheat and other small cereal grains, producing different kinds of trichothecene mycotoxins that are detrimental to human and domestic animals. Type B trichothecene mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-AcDON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-AcDON) and nivalenol (NIV) are the principal Fusarium mycotoxins reported in China, as well as in other countries. A genomic polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to predict chemotypes was developed based on the structural gene sequences of Tri13 genes involved in trichothecene mycotoxin biosynthesis pathways. A single pair of primers derived from the Tri13 genes detected a 583 bp fragment from 15-AcDON-chemotypes, a 644 bp fragment from 3-AcDON-chemotypes and an 859 bp fragment from NIV-producing strains. Fusarium strains from China, Nepal, USA and Europe were identified by this method, revealing their mycotoxin chemotypes identical to that obtained by chemical analyses of HPLC or GC/MS and other PCR assays. The mycotoxin chemotype-specific fragments were amplified from a highly variable region located in Tri13 genes with three deletions for 15-AcDON-chemotypes, two deletions for 3-AcDON-chemotypes and no deletion for NIV-producers. This PCR assay generated a single amplicon and thus should be more reliable than other PCR-based assays that showed the absence or presence of a PCR fragment since these assays may generate false-negative results. The results with strains from several different countries as well as from different hosts further indicated that this method should be globally applicable. This is a rapid, reliable and cost-effective method for the identification of type B trichothecene mycotoxin chemotypes in Fusarium species and food safety controls.

Mycotoxins and child health: the need for health risk assessment

The occurrences of mycotoxins as food contaminants in different localities particularly in developing countries and the inevitable exposure of populations and children to these toxins with probable adverse outcomes need be scientifically and systematically assessed. Health risk assessment developed in the 1980s is separate from risk management, both with risk communication form the risk analysis framework adopted by the World Health Organization. The process contributes increasingly to policy development, public health decision making, the establishment of mycotoxin regulations and research planning. However, the exercise of the risk assessment structured approach is not simple and is faced up to lack of data, capable infrastructure facilities and need for trained personnel and resources. Furthermore, adopted methodologies need be developed focusing on child characteristics and health concerns.

Immunochemical assessment of deoxynivalenol tissue distribution following oral exposure in the mouse

Deoxynivalenol (DON or vomitoxin) is a trichothecene mycotoxin commonly found in cereal grains that adversely affects growth and immune function in experimental animals. A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to monitor the kinetics of distribution and clearance of DON in tissues of young adult B6C3F1 male mice that were orally administered 25mg/kg bw of the toxin. DON was detectable from 5 min to 24h in plasma, liver, spleen and brain and from 5 min to 8h in heart and kidney. The highest DON plasma concentrations were observed within 5-15 min (12 microg/mL) after dosing. There was rapid clearance following two-compartment kinetics (t(1/2)alpha=20.4 min, t 1/2 beta=11.8h) with 5% and 2% maximum plasma DON concentrations remaining after 8 and 24h, respectively. DON distribution and clearance kinetics in other tissues were similar to that of plasma. At 5 min, DON concentrations in mug/g were 19.5+/-1.9 in liver, 7.6+/-0.5 in kidney, 7.3+/-0.8 in spleen, 6.8+/-0.9 in heart and 0.8+/-0.1 in the brain. DON recoveries in tissues by ELISA were comparable to a previous study that employed (3)H-DON and 25mg/kg bw DON dose. The ELISA was further applicable to the detection of DON in plasma of mice exposed to the toxin via diet. This approach provides a simple strategy that can be used to answer relevant questions in rodents of how dose, species, age, gender, genetic background and route/duration of exposure impact DON uptake and clearance.