1
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Zhang J, Zha X, Liu G, Zhao H, Liu X, Zha L. Injectable extracellular matrix-mimetic hydrogel based on electrospun Janus fibers. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2024; 11:1944-1956. [PMID: 38345779 DOI: 10.1039/d3mh01789c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
To date, the reported injectable hydrogels have failed to mimic the fibrous architecture of the extracellular matrix (ECM), limiting their biological effects on cell growth and phenotype. Additionally, they lack the micro-sized pores present within the ECM, which is unfavorable for the facile transport of nutrients and waste. Herein, an injectable ECM-mimetic hydrogel (IEMH) was fabricated by shortening and dispersing Janus fibers capable of self-curling at body temperature into pH 7.4 phosphate buffer solution. The IEMH could be massively prepared through a side-by-side electrospinning process combined with ultraviolet irradiation. The IEMHs with only 5 wt% fibers could undergo sol-gel transition at body temperature to become solid gels with desirable stability, sturdiness, and elasticity and self-healing ability. In addition, they possessed notable pseudoplasticity, which is beneficial to injection at room temperature. The results obtained from characterization analysis via scanning electron microscopy, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy indicate that their sol-gel transition under physiological conditions stems from the synergistic action of the tight entanglements between thermally-induced self-curling fibers and the hydrophobic interaction between the fibers. An MTT assay using C2C12 myoblast cells was performed to examine the in vitro cytotoxicity of IEMHs for biomedical applications, and the cell viability was found to be more than 95%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China.
| | - Xiaolong Zha
- Trauma Center, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 201620, China.
| | - Gengxin Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Center for Advanced Low-dimension Materials, College of Material Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
| | - Huipeng Zhao
- Research Center for Analysis and Measurement, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China.
| | - Xiaoyun Liu
- Research Center for Analysis and Measurement, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China.
| | - Liusheng Zha
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China.
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2
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Li K, Zhu Y, Zhang Q, Shi X, Liang F, Han D. A Self-Healing Hierarchical Fiber Hydrogel That Mimics ECM Structure. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 13:E5277. [PMID: 33233475 PMCID: PMC7700118 DOI: 10.3390/ma13225277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Although there have been many studies on using hydrogels as substitutes for natural extracellular matrices (ECMs), hydrogels that mimic the structure and properties of ECM remain a contentious topic in current research. Herein, a hierarchical biomimetic fiber hydrogel was prepared using a simple strategy, with a structure highly similar to that of the ECM. Cell viability experiments showed that the hydrogel not only has good biocompatibility but also promotes cell proliferation and growth. It was also observed that cells adhere to the fibers in the hydrogel, mimicking the state of cells in the ECM. Lastly, through a rat skin wound repair experiment, we demonstrated that this hydrogel has a good effect on promoting rat skin healing. Its high structural similarity to the ECM and good biocompatibility make this hydrogel a good candidate for prospective applications in the field of tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Li
- The State Key Laboratory for Refractories and Metallurgy, Institute of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430081, China;
| | - Yuting Zhu
- Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; (Y.Z.); (Q.Z.); (D.H.)
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; (Y.Z.); (Q.Z.); (D.H.)
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaoli Shi
- Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; (Y.Z.); (Q.Z.); (D.H.)
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Feng Liang
- The State Key Laboratory for Refractories and Metallurgy, Institute of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430081, China;
| | - Dong Han
- Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; (Y.Z.); (Q.Z.); (D.H.)
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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3
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Alizadehgiashi M, Khuu N, Khabibullin A, Henry A, Tebbe M, Suzuki T, Kumacheva E. Nanocolloidal Hydrogel for Heavy Metal Scavenging. ACS NANO 2018; 12:8160-8168. [PMID: 29979568 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b03202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We report a nanocolloidal hydrogel that combines the advantages of molecular hydrogels and nanoparticle-based scavengers of heavy metal ions. The hydrogel was formed by the chemical cross-linking of cellulose nanocrystals and graphene quantum dots. Over a range of hydrogel compositions, its structure was changed from lamellar to nanofibrillar, thus enabling the control of hydrogel permeability. Using a microfluidic approach, we generated nanocolloidal microgels and explored their scavenging capacity for Hg2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, and Ag+ ions. Due to the large surface area and abundance of ion-coordinating sites on the surface of nanoparticle building blocks, the microgels exhibited a high ion-sequestration capacity. The microgels were recyclable and were used in several ion scavenging cycles. These features, in addition to the sustainable nature of the nanoparticles, make this nanocolloidal hydrogel a promising ion-scavenging material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moien Alizadehgiashi
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Nancy Khuu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Amir Khabibullin
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Andria Henry
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Moritz Tebbe
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Toyoko Suzuki
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
- Graduate School of Engineering , Kobe University , Kobe 657-8501 , Japan
| | - Eugenia Kumacheva
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering , University of Toronto , 4 Taddle Creek Road , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3G9 , Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry , University of Toronto , 200 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3E5 , Canada
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4
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Li Y, Kumacheva E. Hydrogel microenvironments for cancer spheroid growth and drug screening. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2018; 4:eaas8998. [PMID: 29719868 PMCID: PMC5922799 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aas8998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Multicellular cancer spheroids (MCSs) have emerged as a promising in vitro model that replicates many features of solid tumors in vivo. Biomimetic hydrogel scaffolds for MCS growth offer a broad spectrum of biophysical and biochemical cues that help to recapitulate the behavior of natural extracellular matrix, essential for regulating cancer cell behavior. This perspective highlights recent advances in the development of hydrogel environments for MCS growth, release, and drug screening. We review the use of different types of hydrogels for MCS growth, the effect of biophysical and biochemical cues on MCS fate, the isolation of MCSs from hydrogel scaffolds, the utilization of microtechnologies, and the applications of MCSs grown in hydrogels. We conclude with the discussion of new research directions in the development of hydrogels for MCS growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfeng Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Eugenia Kumacheva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 4 Taddle Creek Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- Corresponding author.
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5
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Khabibullin A, Alizadehgiashi M, Khuu N, Prince E, Tebbe M, Kumacheva E. Injectable Shear-Thinning Fluorescent Hydrogel Formed by Cellulose Nanocrystals and Graphene Quantum Dots. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:12344-12350. [PMID: 28953408 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b02906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In the search for new building blocks of nanofibrillar hydrogels, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have attracted great interest because of their sustainability, biocompatibility, ease of surface functionalization, and mechanical strength. Making these hydrogels fluorescent extends the range of their applications in tissue engineering, bioimaging, and biosensing. We report the preparation and properties of a multifunctional hydrogel formed by CNCs and graphene quantum dots (GQDs). We show that although CNCs and GQDs are both negatively charged, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions overcome the electrostatic repulsion between these nanoparticles and yield a physically cross-linked hydrogel with tunable mechanical properties. Owing to their shear-thinning behavior, the CNC-GQD hydrogels were used as an injectable material in 3D printing. The hydrogels were fluorescent and had an anisotropic nanofibrillar structure. The combination of these advantageous properties makes this hybrid hydrogel a promising material and fosters the development of new manufacturing methods such as 3D printing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Khabibullin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, M5S 3H6 Ontario, Canada
| | - Moien Alizadehgiashi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, M5S 3H6 Ontario, Canada
| | - Nancy Khuu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, M5S 3H6 Ontario, Canada
| | - Elisabeth Prince
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, M5S 3H6 Ontario, Canada
| | - Moritz Tebbe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, M5S 3H6 Ontario, Canada
| | - Eugenia Kumacheva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, M5S 3H6 Ontario, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto , 4 Taddle Creek Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto , 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
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6
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Vieira VMP, Hay LL, Smith DK. Multi-component hybrid hydrogels - understanding the extent of orthogonal assembly and its impact on controlled release. Chem Sci 2017; 8:6981-6990. [PMID: 29147525 PMCID: PMC5642149 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc03301j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper reports self-assembled multi-component hybrid hydrogels including a range of nanoscale systems and characterizes the extent to which each component maintains its own unique functionality, demonstrating that multi-functionality can be achieved by simply mixing carefully-chosen constituents. Specifically, the individual components are: (i) pH-activated low-molecular-weight gelator (LMWG) 1,3;2,4-dibenzylidenesorbitol-4',4''-dicarboxylic acid (DBS-COOH), (ii) thermally-activated polymer gelator (PG) agarose, (iii) anionic biopolymer heparin, and (iv) cationic self-assembled multivalent (SAMul) micelles capable of binding heparin. The LMWG still self-assembles in the presence of PG agarose, is slightly modified on the nanoscale by heparin, but is totally disrupted by the micelles. However, if the SAMul micelles are bound to heparin, DBS-COOH self-assembly is largely unaffected. The LMWG endows hybrid materials with pH-responsive behavior, while the PG provides mechanical robustness. The rate of heparin release can be controlled through network density and composition, with the LMWG and PG behaving differently in this regard, while the presence of the heparin binder completely inhibits heparin release through complexation. This study demonstrates that a multi-component approach can yield exquisite control over self-assembled materials. We reason that controlling orthogonality in such systems will underpin further development of controlled release systems with biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vânia M P Vieira
- Department of Chemistry , University of York , Heslington , York , YO10 5DD , UK . ; http://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/staff/academic/o-s/dsmith/
| | - Laura L Hay
- Department of Chemistry , University of York , Heslington , York , YO10 5DD , UK . ; http://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/staff/academic/o-s/dsmith/
| | - David K Smith
- Department of Chemistry , University of York , Heslington , York , YO10 5DD , UK . ; http://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/staff/academic/o-s/dsmith/
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7
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Li Y, Khuu N, Gevorkian A, Sarjinsky S, Therien-Aubin H, Wang Y, Cho S, Kumacheva E. Supramolecular Nanofibrillar Thermoreversible Hydrogel for Growth and Release of Cancer Spheroids. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 56:6083-6087. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201610353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yunfeng Li
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Nancy Khuu
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Albert Gevorkian
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Sharon Sarjinsky
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Heloise Therien-Aubin
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10 55128 Mainz Germany
| | - Yihe Wang
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Sangho Cho
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Eugenia Kumacheva
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry; University of Toronto; 200 College Street Toronto Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
- The Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering; University of Toronto; 4 Taddle Creek Road Toronto Ontario M5S 3G9 Canada
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8
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Li Y, Khuu N, Gevorkian A, Sarjinsky S, Therien-Aubin H, Wang Y, Cho S, Kumacheva E. Supramolecular Nanofibrillar Thermoreversible Hydrogel for Growth and Release of Cancer Spheroids. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201610353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yunfeng Li
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Nancy Khuu
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Albert Gevorkian
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Sharon Sarjinsky
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Heloise Therien-Aubin
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10 55128 Mainz Germany
| | - Yihe Wang
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Sangho Cho
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
| | - Eugenia Kumacheva
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; 80 Saint George street Toronto Ontario M5S 3H6 Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry; University of Toronto; 200 College Street Toronto Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
- The Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering; University of Toronto; 4 Taddle Creek Road Toronto Ontario M5S 3G9 Canada
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9
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Thérien-Aubin H, Wang Y, Nothdurft K, Prince E, Cho S, Kumacheva E. Temperature-Responsive Nanofibrillar Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:3244-3251. [PMID: 27615746 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b00979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Natural extracellular matrices often have a filamentous nature, however, only a limited number of artificial extracellular matrices have been designed from nanofibrillar building blocks. Here we report the preparation of temperature-responsive nanofibrillar hydrogels from rod-shaped cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) functionalized with a copolymer of N-isopropylacrylamide and N,N'-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate. The composition of the copolymer was tuned to achieve gelation of the suspension of copolymer-functionalized CNCs at 37 °C in cell culture medium and gel dissociation upon cooling it to room temperature. The mechanical properties and the structure of the hydrogel were controlled by changing copolymer composition and the CNC-to-copolymer mass ratio. The thermoreversible gels were used for the encapsulation and culture of fibroblasts and T cells and showed low cytotoxicity. Following cell culture, the cells were released from the gel by reducing the temperature, thus, enabling further cell characterization. These results pave the way for the generation of injectable temperature-responsive nanofibrillar hydrogels. The release of cells following their culture in the hydrogels would enable enhanced cell characterization and potential transfer in a different cell culture medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héloïse Thérien-Aubin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Yihe Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Katja Nothdurft
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Elisabeth Prince
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Sangho Cho
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Eugenia Kumacheva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto , 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada.,The Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto , 4 Taddle Creek Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
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10
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Zhou H, Lu Y, Zhang M, Guerin G, Manners I, Winnik MA. PFS-b-PNIPAM: A First Step toward Polymeric Nanofibrillar Hydrogels Based on Uniform Fiber-Like Micelles. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b00544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hang Zhou
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Yijie Lu
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Gerald Guerin
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Ian Manners
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Mitchell A. Winnik
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
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11
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Chau M, Sriskandha SE, Pichugin D, Thérien-Aubin H, Nykypanchuk D, Chauve G, Méthot M, Bouchard J, Gang O, Kumacheva E. Ion-Mediated Gelation of Aqueous Suspensions of Cellulose Nanocrystals. Biomacromolecules 2015; 16:2455-62. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b00701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mokit Chau
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Shivanthi E. Sriskandha
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Dmitry Pichugin
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Héloïse Thérien-Aubin
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Dmitro Nykypanchuk
- Center
for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Grégory Chauve
- FPInnovations, 570 St. Jean Boulevard, Pointe-Claire, Québec H9R 3J9, Canada
| | - Myriam Méthot
- FPInnovations, 570 St. Jean Boulevard, Pointe-Claire, Québec H9R 3J9, Canada
| | - Jean Bouchard
- FPInnovations, 570 St. Jean Boulevard, Pointe-Claire, Québec H9R 3J9, Canada
| | - Oleg Gang
- Center
for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Eugenia Kumacheva
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
- The
Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 4 Taddle Creek Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
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