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Pharmacological Approaches to Decelerate Aging: A Promising Path. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:4201533. [PMID: 35860429 PMCID: PMC9293537 DOI: 10.1155/2022/4201533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biological aging or senescence is a course in which cellular function decreases over a period of time and is a consequence of altered signaling mechanisms that are triggered in stressed cells leading to cell damage. Aging is among the principal risk factors for many chronic illnesses such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Taking this into account, targeting fundamental aging mechanisms therapeutically may effectively impact numerous chronic illnesses. Selecting ideal therapeutic options in order to hinder the process of aging and decelerate the progression of age-related diseases is valuable. Along therapeutic options, life style modifications may well render the process of aging. The process of aging is affected by alteration in many cellular and signaling pathways amid which mTOR, SIRT1, and AMPK pathways are the most emphasized. Herein, we have discussed the mechanisms of aging focusing mainly on the mentioned pathways as well as the role of inflammation and autophagy in aging. Moreover, drugs and natural products with antiaging properties are discussed in detail.
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Taskaeva I, Gogaeva I, Shatruk A, Bgatova N. Lithium Enhances Autophagy and Cell Death in Skin Melanoma: An Ultrastructural and Immunohistochemical Study. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2022; 28:1-9. [PMID: 35592888 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927622000745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Lithium is an inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta, which is traditionally used in the treatment of bipolar disorders and has antitumor effects. The aim of the current study was to determine if lithium salt causes autophagy and apoptosis in skin melanoma cells to enhance cell death. Light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence were used to study the mechanism of action of lithium carbonate in B16 melanoma cells in vivo. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen immunofluorescence assay revealed that the proliferation of B16 melanoma cells was suppressed by lithium treatment for 7 days. Electron microscopy demonstrated a significant increase in the number of autophagic vacuoles in lithium-treated cells relative to control. In addition, levels of autophagy markers LC3 beta and LAMP1 found in lithium-treated tumor xenografts were higher than levels of these markers in the control tumors. Lithium induced caspase-3 expression and apoptotic cell death in tumor cells. Thus, lithium carbonate is the compound that inhibits cell proliferation and stimulates cell death in melanoma cells through induction of autophagy and apoptosis. Stimulation of autophagy by lithium could contribute to the development of autophagic cell death in tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iuliia Taskaeva
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Research, Research Institute of Clinical and Experimental Lymphology - Branch of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Timakova str. 2, 630060 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Izabella Gogaeva
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Research, Research Institute of Clinical and Experimental Lymphology - Branch of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Timakova str. 2, 630060 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Anastasia Shatruk
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Research, Research Institute of Clinical and Experimental Lymphology - Branch of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Timakova str. 2, 630060 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Nataliya Bgatova
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Research, Research Institute of Clinical and Experimental Lymphology - Branch of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Timakova str. 2, 630060 Novosibirsk, Russia
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Smagin DA, Kovalenko IL, Galyamina AG, Belozertseva IV, Tamkovich NV, Baranov KO, Kudryavtseva NN. Chronic Lithium Treatment Affects Anxious Behaviors and theExpression of Serotonergic Genes in Midbrain Raphe Nuclei of Defeated Male Mice. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9101293. [PMID: 34680410 PMCID: PMC8533389 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9101293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is experimental evidence that chronic social defeat stress is accompanied by the development of an anxiety, development of a depression-like state, and downregulation of serotonergic genes in midbrain raphe nuclei of male mice. Our study was aimed at investigating the effects of chronic lithium chloride (LiCl) administration on anxiety behavior and the expression of serotonergic genes in midbrain raphe nuclei of the affected mice. A pronounced anxiety-like state in male mice was induced by chronic social defeat stress in daily agonistic interactions. After 6 days of this stress, defeated mice were chronically treated with saline or LiCl (100 mg/kg, i.p., 2 weeks) during the continuing agonistic interactions. Anxiety was assessed by behavioral tests. RT-PCR was used to determine Tph2, Htr1a, Htr5b, and Slc6a4 mRNA expression. The results revealed anxiolytic-like effects of LiCl on social communication in the partition test and anxiogenic-like effects in both elevated plus-maze and social interaction tests. Chronic LiCl treatment upregulated serotonergic genes in midbrain raphe nuclei. Thus, LiCl effects depend on the treatment mode, psycho-emotional state of the animal, and experimental context (tests). It is assumed that increased expression of serotonergic genes is accompanied by serotonergic system activation and, as a side effect, by higher anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry A. Smagin
- FRC Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (D.A.S.); (I.L.K.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Irina L. Kovalenko
- FRC Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (D.A.S.); (I.L.K.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Anna G. Galyamina
- FRC Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (D.A.S.); (I.L.K.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Irina V. Belozertseva
- Valdman Institute of Pharmacology, First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg, 197022 St. Petersburg, Russia;
| | | | - Konstantin O. Baranov
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Natalia N. Kudryavtseva
- FRC Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (D.A.S.); (I.L.K.); (A.G.G.)
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 188680 St. Petersburg, Russia
- Head of Neuropathology Modeling Laboratory, Institute of Cytology and Genetics SB RAS, pr. Ac. Lavrentjev, 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-(383)-363-49-65
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López R, Díaz N, Suárez D. Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Cations in Complexes with Small Bioorganic Ligands: Ab Initio Benchmark Calculations and Bond Energy Decomposition. Chemphyschem 2020; 21:99-112. [PMID: 31674092 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201900877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report a computational database for the complexes of alkali [Li(I), Na(I), K(I)] and alkaline-earth [Be(II), Mg(II) and Ca(II)] cations with 25 small ligands with varying charge and donor atoms ("O", "N", and "S") that provides geometries and accurate bond energies useful to analyze metal-ligand interactions in proteins and nucleic acids. The role of the ligand→metal charge transfer, the equilibrium bond distance, the electronegativity of the donor atom, the ligand polarizability, and the relative stability of the complexes are discussed in detail. The interacting quantum atoms (IQA) method is used to decompose the binding energy into electrostatic and quantum mechanical contributions. In addition, bond energies are also estimated by means of multipolar electrostatic calculations. No simple correlation exists between bond energies and structural/electronic descriptors unless the data are segregated by the type of ligand or metal. The electrostatic attraction of some molecules (H2 O, NH3 , CH3 OH) towards the metal cations is well reproduced using their (unrelaxed) atomic multipoles, but the same comparison is much less satisfactory for other ligands (e. g. benzene, thiol/thiolate groups, etc.). Besides providing reference structures and bond energies, the database can contribute to validate molecular mechanics potentials capable of yielding a balanced description of alkali and alkaline-earth metals binding to biomolecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto López
- Departamento de Química y Física Aplicadas, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, s/n., 24071, León (Castilla y León, Spain
| | - Natalia Díaz
- Departamento de Química Física y Analítica, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería 8, 33006, Oviedo (Asturias, Spain
| | - Dimas Suárez
- Departamento de Química Física y Analítica, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería 8, 33006, Oviedo (Asturias, Spain
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Thakur S, Tobey A, Klubo-Gwiezdzinska J. The Role of Lithium in Management of Endocrine Tumors-A Comprehensive Review. Front Oncol 2019; 9:1092. [PMID: 31750236 PMCID: PMC6842984 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Epidemiological data reveal that treatment with lithium, a mood stabilizer, is associated with decreased incidence and mortality of certain cancer types, such as melanoma. Therefore, repositioning of lithium as an anticancer agent has emerged as a promising strategy in oncology. Since lithium affects the physiology of several endocrine tissues, the goal of this study was to analyze the role of lithium in the pathogenesis and treatment of tumors of the endocrine system. Methods: The databases of PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, were searched from January 1970 through February 2019 for articles including the keywords "lithium and"-"thyroid cancer," "thyroid nodule," "parathyroid adenoma," "parathyroid carcinoma," "pituitary adenoma," "pituitary neuroendocrine tumor," "neuroendocrine tumor," "carcinoid," "adrenal adenoma," "adrenal carcinoma," "pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma." Preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies as well as case series, retrospective cohort studies and prospective trials were selected for the analysis. Results: Treatment with lithium has been associated with a higher prevalence of thyroid enlargement, hypothyroidism and increased calcium levels due to parathyroid adenoma or hyperplasia, as one of the mechanisms of its action is to stimulate proliferation of normal follicular thyroid and parathyroid cells via activation of the Wnt signaling pathway. Supratherapeutic concentrations of lithium decrease the activity of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), leading to cell cycle arrest in several in vitro cancer models including medullary thyroid cancer (TC), pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma and carcinoid. Growth inhibitory effects of lithium in vivo have been documented in medullary TC xenograft mouse models. Clinically, lithium has been used as an adjuvant agent to therapy with radioactive iodine (RAI), as it increases the residence time of RAI in TC. Conclusion: Patients chronically treated with lithium need to be screened for hypothyroidism, goiter, and hyperparathyroidism, as the prevalence of these endocrine abnormalities is higher in lithium-treated patients than in the general population. The growth inhibitory effects of lithium in medullary TC, pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma and carcinoid were achieved with supratherapeutic concentrations of lithium thus limiting its translational perspective. Currently available clinical data on the efficacy of lithium in the therapy of endocrine tumors in human is limited and associated with conflicting results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Thakur
- Metabolic Disease Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Andrew Tobey
- Metabolic Disease Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Joanna Klubo-Gwiezdzinska
- Metabolic Disease Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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Quantification of lithium at ppm level in geological samples using nuclear reaction analysis. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 2018; 317:253-259. [PMID: 29950747 PMCID: PMC6010491 DOI: 10.1007/s10967-018-5907-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Proton-induced reaction (p,α) is one type of nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) suitable especially for light element quantification. In the case of lithium quantification presented in this work, accelerated protons with an energy about of 850 keV were used to induce the 7Li(p,α)4He reaction in standard reference and geological samples such as tourmaline and other Li-minerals. It is shown that this technique for lithium quantification allowed for measurement of concentrations down below one ppm. The possibility to relate the lithium content with the boron content in a single analysis was also demonstrated using tourmaline samples, both in absolute concentration and in lateral distribution. In addition, Particle induced X-ray emission (PIXE) was utilized as a complementary IBA technique for simultaneous mapping of elements heavier than sodium.
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Bgatova NP, Gavrilova YS, Lykov AP, Solovieva AO, Makarova VV, Borodin YI, Konenkov VI. Apoptosis and autophagy in hepatocarcinoma cells induced by different forms of lithium salts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990519x17040022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Haro Durand LA, Vargas GE, Vera-Mesones R, Baldi A, Zago MP, Fanovich MA, Boccaccini AR, Gorustovich A. In Vitro Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells Response to Ionic Dissolution Products from Lithium-Containing 45S5 Bioactive Glass. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2017; 10:E740. [PMID: 28773103 PMCID: PMC5551783 DOI: 10.3390/ma10070740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 06/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Since lithium (Li⁺) plays roles in angiogenesis, the localized and controlled release of Li⁺ ions from bioactive glasses (BGs) represents a promising alternative therapy for the regeneration and repair of tissues with a high degree of vascularization. Here, microparticles from a base 45S5 BG composition containing (wt %) 45% SiO₂, 24.5% Na₂O, 24.5% CaO, and 6% P₂O₅, in which Na₂O was partially substituted by 5% Li₂O (45S5.5Li), were obtained. The results demonstrate that human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) have greater migratory and proliferative response and ability to form tubules in vitro after stimulation with the ionic dissolution products (IDPs) of the 45S5.5Li BG. The results also show the activation of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway and the increase in expression of proangiogenic cytokines insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ). We conclude that the IDPs of 45S5.5Li BG would act as useful inorganic agents to improve tissue repair and regeneration, ultimately stimulating HUVECs behavior in the absence of exogenous growth factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A Haro Durand
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Pharmacology, IByME-CONICET, C1428ADN Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Gabriela E Vargas
- Department of Developmental Biology, National University of Salta, A4408FVY Salta, Argentina.
| | - Rosa Vera-Mesones
- Department of Developmental Biology, National University of Salta, A4408FVY Salta, Argentina.
| | - Alberto Baldi
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Pharmacology, IByME-CONICET, C1428ADN Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - María P Zago
- Institute of Experimental Pathology, IPE-CONICET, A4408FVY Salta, Argentina.
| | - María A Fanovich
- Research Institute for Materials Science and Technology, INTEMA-CONICET, B7608FDQ Mar del Plata, Argentina.
| | - Aldo R Boccaccini
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomaterials, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Alejandro Gorustovich
- Interdisciplinary Materials Group-IESIING-UCASAL, INTECIN UBA-CONICET, A4400EDD Salta, Argentina.
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10
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McCubrey JA, Rakus D, Gizak A, Steelman LS, Abrams SL, Lertpiriyapong K, Fitzgerald TL, Yang LV, Montalto G, Cervello M, Libra M, Nicoletti F, Scalisi A, Torino F, Fenga C, Neri LM, Marmiroli S, Cocco L, Martelli AM. Effects of mutations in Wnt/β-catenin, hedgehog, Notch and PI3K pathways on GSK-3 activity-Diverse effects on cell growth, metabolism and cancer. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2016; 1863:2942-2976. [PMID: 27612668 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 08/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a serine/threonine kinase that participates in an array of critical cellular processes. GSK-3 was first characterized as an enzyme that phosphorylated and inactivated glycogen synthase. However, subsequent studies have revealed that this moon-lighting protein is involved in numerous signaling pathways that regulate not only metabolism but also have roles in: apoptosis, cell cycle progression, cell renewal, differentiation, embryogenesis, migration, regulation of gene transcription, stem cell biology and survival. In this review, we will discuss the roles that GSK-3 plays in various diseases as well as how this pivotal kinase interacts with multiple signaling pathways such as: PI3K/PTEN/Akt/mTOR, Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK, Wnt/beta-catenin, hedgehog, Notch and TP53. Mutations that occur in these and other pathways can alter the effects that natural GSK-3 activity has on regulating these signaling circuits that can lead to cancer as well as other diseases. The novel roles that microRNAs play in regulation of the effects of GSK-3 will also be evaluated. Targeting GSK-3 and these other pathways may improve therapy and overcome therapeutic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A McCubrey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University Greenville, NC 27858, USA.
| | - Dariusz Rakus
- Department of Animal Molecular Physiology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Wroclaw University, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Gizak
- Department of Animal Molecular Physiology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Wroclaw University, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Linda S Steelman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Steve L Abrams
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Kvin Lertpiriyapong
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, USA
| | - Timothy L Fitzgerald
- Department of Surgery, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, USA
| | - Li V Yang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hematology/Oncology Section, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, USA
| | - Giuseppe Montalto
- Biomedical Department of Internal Medicine and Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy; Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare "Alberto Monroy", Palermo, Italy
| | - Melchiorre Cervello
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare "Alberto Monroy", Palermo, Italy
| | - Massimo Libra
- Department of Bio-medical Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Aurora Scalisi
- Unit of Oncologic Diseases, ASP-Catania, Catania 95100, Italy
| | - Francesco Torino
- Department of Systems Medicine, Chair of Medical Oncology, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Concettina Fenga
- Department of Biomedical, Odontoiatric, Morphological and Functional Images, Occupational Medicine Section - Policlinico "G. Martino" - University of Messina, Messina 98125, Italy
| | - Luca M Neri
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Sandra Marmiroli
- Department of Surgery, Medicine, Dentistry and Morphology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Lucio Cocco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Neuromotorie, Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alberto M Martelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Neuromotorie, Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Goldberg JM, Loas A, Lippard SJ. Metalloneurochemistry and the Pierian Spring: 'Shallow Draughts Intoxicate the Brain'. Isr J Chem 2016; 56:791-802. [PMID: 28190893 DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201600034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Metal ions perform critical and diverse functions in nervous system physiology and pathology. The field of metalloneurochemistry aims to understand the mechanistic bases for these varied roles at the molecular level. Here, we review several areas of research that illustrate progress toward achieving this ambitious goal and identify key challenges for the future. We examine the use of lithium as a mood stabilizer, the roles of mobile zinc and copper in the synapse, the interplay of nitric oxide and metals in retrograde signaling, and the regulation of iron homeostasis in the brain. These topics were chosen to demonstrate not only the breadth of the field, but also to highlight opportunities for discovery by studying such complex systems in greater detail. We are beginning to uncover the principles by which receptors and transmitters utilize metal ions to modulate neurotransmission. These advances have revealed exciting new insights into the intricate mechanisms that give rise to learning, memory, and sensory perception, while opening many new avenues for further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Goldberg
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 (U.S.A.)
| | - Andrei Loas
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 (U.S.A.)
| | - Stephen J Lippard
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 (U.S.A.)
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