Evodiamine and Its Role in Chronic Diseases

Evodiamine and its nano-based approaches for enhanced cancer therapy: recent advances and challenges

Evodiamine is a bioactive alkaloid extracted from the Evodia rutaecarpa plant. It has various pharmacological effects including anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-obesity, anti-neurodegenerative, anti-depressant, and cardiac protective properties. Evodiamine demonstrates potent anti-cancer activity by inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Despite the health-promoting properties of evodiamine, its clinical use is hindered by low water solubility, poor bioavailability, and toxicity. Thus, there is a need to develop alternative drug delivery systems for evodiamine to enhance its solubility, permeability, and stability, as well as to facilitate targeted, prolonged, and controlled drug release. Nanocarriers can increase the therapeutic potential of evodiamine in cancer therapy while reducing adverse side effects. To date, numerous attempts have been made through the development of smart nanocarriers to overcome the drawbacks of evodiamine. This review focuses on the pharmacological applications, anti-cancer mechanisms, and limitations of evodiamine. Various nanocarriers, including lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, cyclodextrins, and so forth, have been discussed extensively for evodiamine delivery. Nano-drug delivery systems could increase the solubility, bioavailability, stability, and therapeutic efficacy of evodiamine. This review aims to present a comprehensive and critical evaluation of several nano-formulations of evodiamine for cancer therapy. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Progress on the effects and underlying mechanisms of evodiamine in digestive system diseases, and its toxicity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine (EVO) is one of the primary components of Evodia rutaecarpa and has been found to have a positive therapeutic effect on various digestive system diseases. However, no systematic review has been conducted on the research progress and mechanisms of EVO in relation to digestive system diseases, and its toxicity.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to provide a reference for future research in this field.

STUDY DESIGN

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the research progress, mechanisms, and toxicity of EVO in the treatment of digestive system diseases.

METHODS

Five electronic databases were utilized to search for relevant experiments. We conducted a comprehensive review and meta-analysis of the pertinent literature following the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (PRISMA).

RESULTS

EVO's animal experiments in digestive system diseases primarily focus on colorectal cancer, gastric ulcers, liver cancer, liver fibrosis, ulcerative colitis, colitis-associated cancer, and functional gastrointestinal disorders. EVO also has positive effects on pancreatic cancer, radiation enteritis, gastric cancer, tongue squamous cancer, hepatitis B, oral cancer, and esophageal cancer in vivo. EVO's in cellular experiments primarily focus on SGC7901, HT29, HCT-116, and HepG2 cells. EVO also exhibits positive effects on SW480, LoVo, BGC-823, AGS, COLO-205, MKN45, SMMC-7721, Bel-7402, QGY7-701, PANC-1, SW1990, BxPC-3, HSC4, MC3, HONE1, and CNE1 cells in vitro. The potential common pathways include TGF-β, PI3K-AKT, Wnt, ErbB, mTOR, MAPK, HIF-1, NOD-like receptor, NF-κB, VEGF, JAK-STAT, AMPK, Toll-like receptor, EGFR, Ras, TNF, AGE-RAGE, Relaxin, FoxO, IL-17, Hippo, and cAMP. The mechanisms of EVO on ulcerative colitis, gastric cancer, and HCT116 cells are still controversial in vivo. EVO may have a bidirectional regulatory effect on functional gastrointestinal disorders through calcium signaling. The mechanisms of EVO on HCT116, HT29, SW480, AGS, COLO-205, and SW1990 cells are still controversial in vitro. The question of whether EVO has obvious toxicity is controversial.

CONCLUSION

In both cellular and animal experiments, EVO has demonstrated positive impacts on digestive system diseases. Nevertheless, additional in vivo and in vitro research is required to confirm the beneficial effects and mechanisms of EVO on digestive system diseases, as well as its potential toxicity.

The Emerging Role of Herbal Medicines in Cancer by Interfering with Posttranslational Modifications

Significance: Herbal medicines have a long history of comprehensive cancer treatment through various posttranslational modifications (PTMs). Recently, emerging evidence revealed that dysregulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ROS-regulated signaling pathways influence cancer initiation, growth, and progression in a paradoxical role with either low levels or increasing levels of basal ROS. However, ROS-triggered modifications of target proteins in the face of ROS-mediated signal transduction are not fully understood in the anticancer therapies of herbal medicines. In this review, we briefly introduce the PTM-dependent regulations of herbal medicines, and then focus on the current ideals that targeting ROS-dependent PTMs via antioxidant and redox signaling pathways can provide a promising strategy in herbal-based anticancer effects. Recent Advances: Advanced development in highly sensitive mass spectrometry-based techniques has helped utilize ROS-triggered protein modifications in numerous cancers. Accumulating evidence has been achieved in laboratory to extensively ascertain the biological mechanism of herbal medicines targeting ROS in cancer therapy. Two general mechanisms underlining ROS-induced cell signaling include redox state and oxidative modification of target protein, indicating a new perspective to comprehend the intricate dialogues between herbal medicines and cancer cellular contexts. Critical Issues: Complex components of herbal medicines limit the benefits of herbal-based cancer therapies. In this review, we address that ROS-dependent PTMs add a layer of proteomic complexity to the cancer through altering the protein structure, expression, function, and localization. Elaborating ROS-triggered PTMs implicated in cell signaling, apoptosis, and transcriptional regulation function, and the possible cellular signaling, has provided important information about the contribution of many ROS targeting herbal therapies in anticancer effects. Continued optimization of proteomic strategies for PTM analysis in herbal medicines is also briefly discussed. Future Directions: Rigorous evaluations of herbal medicines and proteomic strategies are necessary to explore the aberrant regulation of ROS-triggered antioxidant and redox signaling contributing to the novel protein targets and herbal-associated pharmacological issues. These efforts will eventually help develop more herbal drugs as modern therapeutic agents.

Bioactivation and reactivity research advances - 2023 year in review

Advances in the field of bioactivation have significantly contributed to our understanding and prediction of drug-induced liver injury (DILI). It has been established that many adverse drug reactions, including DILI, are associated with the formation and reactivity of metabolites. Modern methods allow us to detect and characterize these reactive metabolites in earlier stages of drug development, which helps anticipate and circumvent the potential for DILI. Improved in silico models and experimental techniques that better reflect in vivo environments are enhancing predictive capabilities for DILI risk. Further, studies on the mechanisms of bioactivation, including enzyme interactions and the role of individual genetic differences, have provided valuable insights for drug optimizations. Cumulatively, this progress is continually refining our approaches to drug safety evaluation and personalized medicine.

Comprehensive review of Bcl-2 family proteins in cancer apoptosis: Therapeutic strategies and promising updates of natural bioactive compounds and small molecules

Cancer has a considerably higher fatality rate than other diseases globally and is one of the most lethal and profoundly disruptive ailments. The increasing incidence of cancer among humans is one of the greatest challenges in the field of healthcare. A significant factor in the initiation and progression of tumorigenesis is the dysregulation of physiological processes governing cell death, which results in the survival of cancerous cells. B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family members play important roles in several cancer-related processes. Drug research and development have identified various promising natural compounds that demonstrate potent anticancer effects by specifically targeting Bcl-2 family proteins and their associated signaling pathways. This comprehensive review highlights the substantial roles of Bcl-2 family proteins in regulating apoptosis, including the intricate signaling pathways governing the activity of these proteins, the impact of reactive oxygen species, and the crucial involvement of proteasome degradation and the stress response. Furthermore, this review discusses advances in the exploration and potential therapeutic applications of natural compounds and small molecules targeting Bcl-2 family proteins and thus provides substantial scientific information and therapeutic strategies for cancer management.

Toxicity evaluation of processing Evodiae fructus based on intestinal microbiota

Background

With the development of healthcare services, drug efficacy, and safety have become the focus of drug use, and processing alters drug toxicity and efficacy, exploring the effects of processing on Evodiae fructus (EF) can guide the clinical use of drugs.

Methods

Fifty male Kunming mice were randomly divided into the control group (CCN), raw small-flowered EF group (CRSEF), raw medium-flowered EF group (CRMEF), processing small-flowered EF group (CPSEF), and processing medium-flowered EF group (CPMEF). The CRSEF, CRMEF, CPSEF, and CPMEF groups were gavaged with aqueous extracts of raw small-flowered EF dry paste (RSEF), medium-flowered EF dry paste (RMEF), processing small-flowered EF dry paste (PSEF) and processing medium-flowered EF dry paste (PMEF), respectively, for 21 days at 5 times the pharmacopeial dosage. Upon concluding the experiment, histopathological sections of liver and kidney tissues were examined. Additionally, levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), serum creatinine (SCr), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were determined. DNA from the intestinal contents of the mice was extracted, and 16S rRNA full-length high-throughput sequencing was performed.

Results

After fed EF 21 days, mice exhibited a decreasing trend in body weight. Comparative analysis with the CCN group revealed an upward trend in SCr, BUN, AST, and ALT levels in both CRSEF and CRMEF groups. The CRMEF group displayed notably elevated BUN and AST levels, with an observed increasing trend in Scr and ALT. Kidney sections unveiled cellular edema and considerable inflammatory cell infiltrates, whereas significant liver damage was not evident. Compared with CRSEF, Bun levels were significantly lower while AST levels were significantly higher in the CPMEF group. Additionally, the intestinal microbiota diversity and the relative abundance of Psychrobacter decreased significantly, and the relative abundance of Staphylococcus, Jeotgalicoccus, and Salinicoccus increased significantly in the CPMEF group. AST, ALT, and SCr were positively correlated with Staphylococcus, Jeotgalicoccus, and Salinicoccus.

Conclusion

In conclusion, PMEF significantly increased harmful bacteria (Staphylococcus, Jeotgalicoccus, and Salinicoccu) and decreased beneficial bacteria. SEF with 5 times the clinical dose showed nephrotoxicity and SEF nephrotoxicity decreased after processing, but EF hepatotoxicity was not significant, which may be due to insufficient dose concentration and time.

A novel prognostic signature and potential therapeutic drugs based on tumor immune microenvironment characterization in breast cancer

Tumor microenvironment (TME) is closely correlated to the occurrence and progression of breast cancer, however its potentiality in assisting diagnosis and therapeutic decision remains unclear. Therefore, the major aim of this study is to explore the prognostic value of TME related gene in breast cancer. Expression matrices and clinical data of breast cancer obtained from public databases were divided into TME relevant clusters according to immune characterization. A 12-gene molecular classifier was generated through the utilization of differentially expressed genes identified between distinct Tumor Microenvironment (TME) clusters, coupled with correlative regression analysis. The performance of this TME-driven prognostic signature (TPS) were examined across both the training and validation cohorts. Furthermore, our study revealed that breast cancer cases classified as high-risk based on the TPS exhibited the phenotype with elevated immune cell infiltration, higher tumor mutational burden, and a notably worse overall prognostic outcome. To conclude, the novel TME-based TPS was able to serve as a superior prognosis indicator for breast cancer, alone or jointly with other clinical factors. Also, breast cancer patients belong to different risk subgroups of TPS were found potentially suitable for distinguished therapeutic agents, which might improve personalized treatment for breast cancer in the future.

Potential active compounds and common mechanisms of Evodia rutaecarpa for Alzheimer's disease comorbid pain by network pharmacology analysis

Evodia rutaecarpa (Evodia) is a Chinese herbal medicine with analgesic and anti-neurodegenerative properties. However, whether Evodia compounds can be applied for the comorbid pain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Herein, 137 common targets of Evodia between AD and pain were predicted from drug and disease target databases. Subsequently, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, protein function module construction, and bioinformatics analyses were used to analyze the potential relationship among targets, pathways, and diseases. Evodia could simultaneously treat AD comorbid pain through multi-target, multi-component, and multi-pathway mechanisms, and inflammation was an important common phenotype of AD and pain. The relationship between important transcription factors such as RELA, NF-κB1, SP1, STAT3, and JUN on IL-17, TNF, and MAPK signaling pathways might be potential mechanisms of Evodia. Additionally, 10 candidate compounds were predicted, and evodiamine might be the effective active ingredient of Evodia in treating AD or pain. In summary, this study provided a reference for subsequent research and a novel understanding and direction for the clinical use of evodiamine to treat AD patients with comorbid pain.

Development of a new drug candidate for the inhibition of Lassa virus glycoprotein and nucleoprotein by modification of evodiamine as promising therapeutic agents

The Lassa virus (LASV), an RNA virus prevalent in West and Central Africa, causes severe hemorrhagic fever with a high fatality rate. However, no FDA-approved treatments or vaccines exist. Two crucial proteins, LASV glycoprotein and nucleoprotein, play vital roles in pathogenesis and are potential therapeutic targets. As effective treatments for many emerging infections remain elusive, cutting-edge drug development approaches are essential, such as identifying molecular targets, screening lead molecules, and repurposing existing drugs. Bioinformatics and computational biology expedite drug discovery pipelines, using data science to identify targets, predict structures, and model interactions. These techniques also facilitate screening leads with optimal drug-like properties, reducing time, cost, and complexities associated with traditional drug development. Researchers have employed advanced computational drug design methods such as molecular docking, pharmacokinetics, drug-likeness, and molecular dynamics simulation to investigate evodiamine derivatives as potential LASV inhibitors. The results revealed remarkable binding affinities, with many outperforming standard compounds. Additionally, molecular active simulation data suggest stability when bound to target receptors. These promising findings indicate that evodiamine derivatives may offer superior pharmacokinetics and drug-likeness properties, serving as a valuable resource for professionals developing synthetic drugs to combat the Lassa virus.

Dietary Evodiamine Inhibits Atherosclerosis-Associated Changes in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth is a traditional Chinese medicine. The active ingredient, evodiamine, is a quinolone alkaloid and is found in Evodiae fructus. We investigated the effect of evodiamine on atherosclerosis using LDLR−/− mice fed on a high-fat diet and ox-LDL-induced MOVAS cell lines to construct mouse models and cell-line models. We report a significant reduction in atherosclerotic plaque formation in mice exposed to evodiamine. Our mechanistic studies have revealled that evodiamine can regulate the proliferation, migration, and inflammatory response of and oxidative stress in vascular smooth muscle cells by inhibiting the activation of the PI3K/Akt axis, thus inhibiting the occurrence and development of atherosclerosis. In conclusion, our findings reveal a role for evodiamine in the regulation of vascular smooth muscle cells in atherosclerosis, highlighting a potential future role for the compound as an anti-atherosclerotic agent.

Molecular mechanisms of hepatotoxicity induced by compounds occurring in Evodiae Fructus

Evodiae Fructus (EF) is a common herbal medicine with thousands of years of medicinal history in China, which has been demonstrated with many promising pharmacological effects on cancer, cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer's disease. However, there have been increasing reports of hepatotoxicity associated with EF consumption. Unfortunately, in a long term, many implicit constituents of EF as well as their toxic mechanisms remain poorly understood. Recently, metabolic activation of hepatotoxic compounds of EF to generate reactive metabolites (RMs) has been implicated. Herein, we capture metabolic reactions relevant to hepatotoxicity of these compounds. Initially, catalyzed by the hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP450s), the hepatotoxic compounds of EF are oxidized to generate RMs. Subsequently, the highly electrophilic RMs could react with nucleophilic groups contained in biomolecules, such as hepatic proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids to form conjugates and/or adducts, leading to a sequence of toxicological consequences. In addition, currently proposed biological pathogenesis, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, hepatic metabolism disorder, and cell apoptosis are represented. In short, this review updates the knowledge on the pathways of metabolic activation of seven hepatotoxic compounds of EF and provides considerable insights into the relevance of proposed molecular hepatotoxicity mechanisms from a biochemical standpoint, for the purpose of providing a theoretical guideline for the rational application of EF in clinics.

Plant and fungi derived analgesic natural products targeting voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels

Voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels (VGSCs and VGCCs) play an important role in the modulation of physiologically relevant processes in excitable cells that range from action potential generation to neurotransmission. Once their expression and/or function is altered in disease, specific pharmacological approaches become necessary to mitigate the negative consequences of such dysregulation. Several classes of small molecules have been developed with demonstrated effectiveness on VGSCs and VGCCs; however, off-target effects have also been described, limiting their use and spurring efforts to find more specific and safer molecules to target these channels. There are a great number of plants and herbal preparations that have been empirically used for the treatment of diseases in which VGSCs and VGCCs are involved. Some of these natural products have progressed to clinical trials, while others are under investigation for their action mechanisms on signaling pathways, including channels. In this review, we synthesize information from ~30 compounds derived from natural sources like plants and fungi and delineate their effects on VGSCs and VGCCs in human disease, particularly pain. [Figure: see text].

Evodiamine as an anticancer agent: a comprehensive review on its therapeutic application, pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and metabolism in various cancers

Evodiamine is a major alkaloid component found in the fruit of Evodia rutaecarpa. It shows the anti-proliferative potential against a wide range of cancers by suppressing cell growth, invasion, and metastasis and inducing apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Evodiamine shows its anticancer potential by modulating aberrant signaling pathways. Additionally, the review focuses on several therapeutic implications of evodiamine, such as epigenetic modification, cancer stem cells, and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Moreover, combinatory drug therapeutics along with evodiamine enhances the anticancer efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs in various cancers by overcoming the chemo resistance and radio resistance shown by cancer cells. It has been widely used in preclinical trials in animal models, exhibiting very negligible side effects against normal cells and effective against cancer cells. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics-based collaborations of evodiamine are also included. Due to its poor bioavailability, synthetic analogs of evodiamine and its nano capsule have been formulated to enhance its bioavailability and reduce toxicity. In addition, this review summarizes the ongoing research on the mechanisms behind the antitumor potential of evodiamine, which proposes an exciting future for such interests in cancer biology.

Inflammasome-targeting natural compounds in inflammatory bowel disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), mainly including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, seriously affects human health and causes substantial social and economic burden. The pathogenesis of IBD is still not fully elucidated, whereas recent studies have demonstrated that its development is associated with the dysfunction of intestinal immune system. Accumulating evidence have proven that inflammasomes such as NLRP3 and NLRP6 play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of IBD. Thus, regulating the activation of inflammasomes have been considered to be a promising strategy in IBD treatment. A number of recent studies have provided evidence that blocking inflammasome related cytokine IL-1β can benefit a group of IBD patients with overactivation of NLRP3 inflammasome. However, therapies for targeting inflammasomes with high efficacy and safety are rare. Traditional medical practice provides numerous medical compounds that may have a role in treatment of various human diseases including IBD. Recent studies demonstrated that numerous medicinal herb derived compounds can efficiently prevent colon inflammation in animal models by targeting inflammasomes. Herein, we summarize the main findings of these studies focusing on the effects of traditional medicine derived compounds on colitis treatment and the underlying mechanisms in regulating the inflammasomes. On this basis, we provide a perspective for future studies regarding strategies to improve the efficacy, specificity and safety of available herbal compounds, and to discover new compounds using the emerging new technologies, which will improve our understanding about the roles and mechanisms of herbal compounds in the regulation of inflammasomes and treatment of IBD.

Effect of Evodiamine on Collagen-Induced Platelet Activation and Thrombosis

Evodia rutaecarpa has multiple pharmacological effects and is widely used in the prevention and treatment of migraine, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other chronic diseases; however, the pharmacological effects of its active compound evodiamine (Evo) have not been thoroughly investigated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Evo on antiplatelet activation and thrombosis. We discovered that Evo effectively inhibited collagen-induced platelet activation but had no effect on platelet aggregation caused by activators such as thrombin, ADP, and U46619. Second, we found that Evo effectively inhibited the release of platelet granules induced by collagen. Finally, evodiamine inhibits the transduction of the SFKs/Syk/Akt/PLCγ2 activation pathway in platelets. According to in vivo studies, Evo significantly prolonged the mesenteric thromboembolism induced by ferric chloride and had no discernible effect on the coagulation function of mice. In conclusion, the antiplatelet and thrombotic effects of Evo discovered in this study provide an experimental basis for the investigation of the pharmacological mechanisms of Evo and the development of antiplatelet drugs.

Oral supramolecular nanovectors for dual natural medicine codelivery to prevent gastric mucosal lesion

The oral administration of a single formulation loaded with more than one natural medicine to treat chronic diseases has advantages such as convenience, effectiveness, and economy. Here, using biomaterials approved by the drug administration, we fabricated supramolecular nanovectors containing dual natural medicines to prevent gastric mucosal lesions. Nanovectors exhibited superior intestinal absorption and bioavailability, which might be due to their high dispersion, good muco-adhesiveness, blood-lymph circulation transport, lipid sensing, and protective effects. Molecular docking results clarified the possible mechanisms in aspects of efflux pump (p-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance protein 1) inhibition effects, metabolic enzyme (cytochrome P450 3A4/1A2) blocking effects, serum albumin deposit effects, and dual drug interaction effects. Nanovectors decreased ethanol-induced gastric mucosal lesions by lowering the gastric ulcer index, preventing oxidative damage, decreasing interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and malondialdehyde, increasing glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and prostaglandin E2 levels. The interactions of inhibitor of nuclear factor-κB or κB kinase-related proteins and dual drugs or nanovector components were simulated computationally to provide an understanding of the gastro-protective action mechanism. In all, industrializable supramolecular nanovectors could effectively co-deliver dual natural medicines via the oral route by improving the pharmacokinetic behavior and exerting protective efficacy of the gastric mucosa by decreasing the oxidative stress and inflammatory level.

Nanoparticles as phytochemical carriers for cancer treatment: News of the last decade

INTRODUCTION

The development and application of novel therapeutic medicines for the treatment of cancer are of vital importance to improve the disease's outcome and survival rate. One noteworthy treatment approach is the use of biologically active compounds present in natural products. Even though these phytocompounds present anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties, their use is limited essentially due to poor systemic delivery, low bioavailability, and water solubility concerns. To make full use of the anticancer potential of natural products, these limitations need to be technologically addressed. In this sense, nanotechnology emerges as a promising drug delivery system strategy.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, the benefits and potential of nanodelivery systems for natural products encapsulation as promising therapeutic approaches for cancer, which were developed during the last decade, are highlighted.

EXPERT OPINION

The nanotechnology area has been under extensive research in the medical field given its capacity for improving the therapeutic potential of drugs by increasing their bioavailability and allowing a targeted delivery to the tumor site. Thereby, the nanoencapsulation of phytocompounds can have a direct impact on the recognized therapeutic activity of natural products towards cancer.

Synthesis of pyrimidine-containing alkaloids

This review deals with the synthesis of naturally occurring alkaloids containing partially or completely saturated pyrimidine nuclei. The interest in these compounds is associated with their structural diversity, high biological activity and toxicity. The review is divided into four parts, each of which describes a number of synthetic methodologies toward structurally different naturally occurring alkaloids containing saturated cyclic six-membered amidine, guanidine, aminal and urea (thiourea) moieties, respectively. The development of various synthetic strategies for the preparation of these compounds has remarkably increased during the past few decades. This is primarily due to the fact that some of these compounds are isolated only in limited quantities, which makes it practically impossible to study their full structural characteristics and biological activity.

Evodiamine Lowers Blood Lipids by Up-Regulating the PPARγ/ABCG1 Pathway in High-Fat-Diet-Fed Mice

The natural alkaloid evodiamine enhances cholesterol efflux from cultured THP-1-derived macrophages, but whether it has any impact on blood lipids in vivo remains unknown. In this study, the effect of evodiamine on hyperlipidemia induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) was investigated in mice. Intragastric administrations of evodiamine (10 and 20 mg/kg) for 8 weeks resulted in a significant improvement of metabolic lipid profiles by reducing the plasma levels of triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Evodiamine also significantly decreased hepatic lipid accumulation and hepatic total bile acids (TBA). Mechanistically, evodiamine increased ATP-binding cassette transporter G1 (ABCG1) mRNA and protein expression and up-regulated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) expression in the liver. Taken together, the natural product evodiamine lowers blood lipids in HFD-fed mice likely through promoting the PPARγ-ABCG1 signaling pathway.

The Synthesis, Structural Modification and Mode of Anticancer Action of Evodiamine: a review

BACKGROUND

Finding novel antitumor reagents from naturally occurring alkaloids is a widely accepted strategy. Evodiamine, a tryptamine indole alkaloid isolated from Evodia rutaecarpa, has a wide range of biological activities, such as antitumor, anti-inflammation, and anti-bacteria. Hence, research works on the structural modification of evodiamine will facilitate the discovery of new antitumor drugs.

OBJECTIVE

The recent advances in the synthesis of evodiamine, and studies on the drug design, biological activities, and structure-activity-relationships of its derivatives, published in patents and primary literatures, are reviewed in this paper.

METHODS

The literatures, including patents and follow-up research papers from 2015 to 2020, related to evodiamine is searched in the Scifinder, PubMed, Espacenet, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wanfang databases. The key words are evodiamine, synthesis, modification, anticancer, mechanism.

RESULTS

The synthesis of evodiamine are summarized. Then, structural modifications of evodiamine are described, and the possible modes of actions are discussed.

CONCLUSION

Evodiamine has a 6/5/6/6/6 ring system, and the structural modifications are focused on ring A, D, E, C5, N-13, and N-14. Some compounds show promising anticancer potentials and warrant further study.

Synthesis of ring opening of evodiamine derivatives and evaluation on their biological activity

As a main bioactive component extracted from Evodiae fructus, evodiamine has a variety of pharmacological activities. In this paper, evodiamine was chosen as starting material to react with different halides. Upon treatment of TFA, a series of novel ring-opening evodiamine derivatives 3a-o were successfully synthesized in a moderate to high yields. These obtained compounds exhibit a moderate to good antitumor activity against BGC803 and SW480 in vitro test by MTT assay. The results showed that hexyl substituted evodiamine derivative (3j, R=hexyl) has a strong antitumor activity against BGC803 and SW480.

Natural Bioactive Compounds Targeting Epigenetic Pathways in Cancer: A Review on Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Quinones, and Isothiocyanates

Cancer is one of the most complex and systemic diseases affecting the health of mankind, causing major deaths with a significant increase. This pathology is caused by several risk factors, of which genetic disturbances constitute the major elements, which not only initiate tumor transformation but also epigenetic disturbances which are linked to it and which can induce transcriptional instability. Indeed, the involvement of epigenetic disturbances in cancer has been the subject of correlations today, in addition to the use of drugs that operate specifically on different epigenetic pathways. Natural molecules, especially those isolated from medicinal plants, have shown anticancer effects linked to mechanisms of action. The objective of this review is to explore the anticancer effects of alkaloids, terpenoids, quinones, and isothiocyanates.

Ternary supramolecular nanocomplexes for superior anticancer efficacy of natural medicines

The discovery of effective anticancer drug delivery systems and elucidation of the mechanism are enormous challenges. Using two drug administration-approved biomaterials, we constructed a natural medicine (NM)-loaded ternary supramolecular nanocomplex (TSN) suitable for large-scale production. The TSN has a better effect against cancer cells/stem cells than NM with differentially upregulated (27 versus 59) and downregulated (165 versus 66) proteins, respectively. Treatment with the TSN induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest, inhibited cell proliferation, metastasis and invasion, reduced colony/sphere formation, and decreased the frequency of side population cells and CD133⁺CD44⁺ABCG2⁺ cells. These results were revealed by multiple analyses (proteomic analysis, transwell migration and colony/sphere formation assays, biomarker profiling, etc.). We first reported the proteomic analysis of small lung cancer cells responding to a drug or its nanovesicles. We first conducted a proteomic evaluation of tumor cells responding to a drug supramolecular nanosystem. The supramolecular conformation of the TSN and the interactions of the TSN with albumin were verified by molecular docking experiments. The dominant binding forces in the TSN complexation process were electrostatic interactions, van der Waalsinteractions and bond stretching. The TSN binds to albumin more readily than NM does. The TSN has good in situ absorptive and in vitro/vivo kinetic properties. The relative bioavailability of the TSN to EA was 458.39%. The NM-loaded TSN is a supramolecular vesicle that can be produced at an industrial scale for efficient cancer therapy.

Autophagy Modulators From Chinese Herbal Medicines: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potentials for Asthma

Asthma has become a global health issue, suffering more than 300 million people in the world, which is a heterogeneous disease, usually characterized by chronic airway inflammation and airway hyperreactivity. Combination of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and long acting β-agonists (LABA) can relieve asthma symptoms and reduce the frequency of exacerbations, especially for patients with refractory asthma, but there are limited treatment options for people who do not gain control on combination ICS/LABA. The increase in ICS dose generally provides little additional benefit, and there is an increased risk of side effects. Therefore, therapeutic interventions integrating the use of different agents that focus on different targets are needed to overcome this set of diseases. Some findings suggest autophagy is closely correlated with the severity of asthma through eosinophilic inflammation, and its modulation may provide novel therapeutic approaches for severe allergic asthma. The chinese herbal medicine (CHM) have been demonstrated clinically as potent therapeutic interventions for asthma. Moreover some reports have found that the bioactive components isolated from CHM could modulate autophagy, and exhibit potent Anti-inflammatory activity. These findings have implied the potential for CHMs in asthma or allergic inflammation therapy via the modulation of autophagy. In this review, we discuss the basic pathomechanisms underpinning asthma, and the potential role of CHMs in treating asthma with modulating autophagy.

Peroxidase-mimicking evodiamine/indocyanine green nanoliposomes for multimodal imaging-guided theranostics for oral squamous cell carcinoma

Here, evodiamine (EVO) and the photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) were integrated into a liposomal nanoplatform for noninvasive diagnostic imaging and combinatorial therapy against oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). EVO, as an active component extracted from traditional Chinese medicine, not only functioned as an antitumor chemotherapeutic agent but was also capable of 68Ga-chelation, thus working as a contrast agent for positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) imaging. Moreover, EVO could exhibit peroxidase-like catalytic activity, converting endogenous tumor H2O2 into cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), enabling Chemo catalytic therapy beyond the well-known chemotherapy effect of EVO. As proven by in vitro and in vivo experiments, guided by optical imaging and PET/CT imaging, we show that the theragnostic liposomes have a significant inhibiting effect on in situ tongue tumor through photodynamic therapy combined with chemodynamic chemotherapy.

A novel evodiamine amino derivative as a PI3K/AKT signaling pathway modulator that induces apoptosis in small cell lung cancer cells

Evodiamine (EVO) was derivatized to a C10-amino derivative (EVA) using a two-step method suitable for industrializing production. This method has advantages such as a short reaction time, high yield, few byproducts and simple purification. The AUC and C_max values of EVA were 7.02- and 4.62-fold, while the T_max and Cl values were one-half and one-eighth that of EVO, respectively. EVA markedly improved the bioavailability, which might be ascribed to the serum albumin deposit effect. EVA was bound to albumin in the same hydrophobic pocket as EVO, but one more hydrogen bond was formed between Asp323 and the amino group at the C10 position. The amino derivative of natural alkaloids showed a substantial increase in antitumor activity on small cell lung cancer (SCLC) cells. The role of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in alkaloid/derivative-induced apoptosis in tumor cells was thoroughly described. p-AKT, its downstream effectors Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3 and its upstream regulator PTEN were regulated by EVA. The interaction between EVO/EVA and the upstream protein PI3K p110 was first investigated with molecular docking. The apoptosis induced by EVA was abrogated after the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway was reactivated by IGF-1. The interaction between EVO/EVA and P-gp was also first studied using docking method. Their binding forces were weak. But EVA might reduce much expression of P-gp than EVO, and ultimately led to reduction of EVA efflux. Our study provides novel insights into a feasible and productive amino derivative of natural alkaloids for SCLC therapy.

Effect of Evodiamine on Rat Colonic Hypermotility Induced by Water Avoidance Stress and the Underlying Mechanism

Background and Aim

EVO is a natural alkaloid that reportedly has potential value in regulating gastrointestinal motility, but this conclusion remains controversial, and the molecular mechanism is unclear. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of short-chain fatty acids on rat colonic hypermotility induced by water avoidance stress and the underlying mechanism.

Methods

We constructed a hypermotile rat model by chronic water avoidance stress, and Western blot was used to detect the protein level of nNOS in colon tissue. The organ bath and multichannel physiological signal acquisition systems were used to examine the spontaneous contractions of smooth muscle strips. The whole-cell patch-clamp technique was used to investigate L-type voltage-dependent calcium and BK_Ca channel currents in colonic smooth muscle cells.

Results

EVO inhibited the spontaneous contractions of colonic smooth muscle strips in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, EVO decreased the fecal output induced by chronic water avoidance stress. TTX did not block the inhibitory effect of EVO on spontaneous colon contractions, while L-NNA, a selective nNOS synthase inhibitor, did partially abolish this inhibitory effect. The protein expression of nNOS in the colon tissues of rats administered EVO was significantly increased compared to that in control rats. EVO reversibly inhibited the L-type calcium channel current without changing the steady-state activation or inactivation in colonic smooth muscle cells. EVO significantly inhibited the BK_Ca current but did not change the shape of the I-V curves.

Conclusion

EVO inhibits gastrointestinal motility by inhibiting L-type calcium and BK_Ca channels in colonic smooth muscle cells and indirectly interacting with nNOS.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of 3',4',5'-trimethoxy evodiamine derivatives as potential antitumor agents

A series of compounds bearing 3',4',5'-trimethoxy module into the core structure of evodiamine were designed and synthesized. The synthesized compounds were screened in vitro for their antitumor potential. MTT results showed that compounds 14a-14c and 14i-14j had significant effects, with compound 14h being the most prominent, with an IC₅₀ value of 3.3 ± 1.5 μM, which was lower than evodiamine and 5-Fu. Subsequent experiments further confirmed that compound 14h could inhibit cell proliferation and migration, and induce G2/M phase arrest to inhibit the proliferation of HGC-27 cells, which is consistent with the results of the cytotoxicity experiment. Besides, 14h could inhibit microtubule assembly and might kill tumor cells by inhibiting VEGF and glycolysis. All experimental results indicate that compound 14h might be a potential drug candidate for the treatment of gastric cancer and was worthy of further study.

Evodiamine: A review of its pharmacology, toxicity, pharmacokinetics and preparation researches

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Evodia rutaecarpa, a well-known herb medicine in China, is extensively applied in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The plant has the effects of dispersing cold and relieving pain, arresting vomiting, and helping Yang and stopping diarrhea. Modern research demonstrates that evodiamine, the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, is the material basis for its efficacy.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This paper is primarily addressed to summarize the current studies on evodiamine. The progress in research on the pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacokinetics, preparation researches and clinical application are reviewed. Moreover, outlooks and directions for possible future studies concerning it are also discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information of this systematic review was conducted with resources of multiple literature databases including PubMed, Google scholar, Web of Science and Wiley Online Library and so on, with employing a combination of keywords including "pharmacology", "toxicology", "pharmacokinetics" and "clinical application", etc. RESULTS: As the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, evodiamine shows considerable pharmacological activities, such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-microbial, heart protection and metabolic disease regulation. However, it is also found that it has significant hepatotoxicity and cardiotoxicity, thereby it should be monitored in clinical. In addition, available data demonstrate that the evodiamine has a needy solubility in aqueous medium. Scientific and reasonable pharmaceutical strategies should be introduced to improve the above defects. Meanwhile, more efforts should be made to develop novel efficient and low toxic derivatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes the results from current studies of evodiamine, which is one of the valuable medicinal ingredients from Evodia rutaecarpa. With the assistance of relevant pharmacological investigation, some conventional application and problems in pharmaceutical field have been researched in recent years. In addition, unresolved issues include toxic mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, novel pharmaceutical researches and relationship between residues and intestinal environment, which are still being explored and excavate before achieving integration into clinical practice.

Effects of alkaloids on peripheral neuropathic pain: a review

Neuropathic pain is a debilitating pathological pain condition with a great therapeutic challenge in clinical practice. Currently used analgesics produce deleterious side effects. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate alternative medicines for neuropathic pain. Chinese herbal medicines have been widely used in treating intractable pain. Compelling evidence revealed that the bioactive alkaloids of Chinese herbal medicines stand out in developing novel drugs for neuropathic pain due to multiple targets and satisfactory efficacy. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in the research of analgesic effects of 20 alkaloids components for peripheral neuropathic pain and highlight the potential underlying molecular mechanisms. We also point out the opportunities and challenges of the current studies and shed light on further in-depth pharmacological and toxicological studies of these bioactive alkaloids. In conclusion, the alkaloids hold broad prospects and have the potentials to be novel drugs for treating neuropathic pain. This review provides a theoretical basis for further applying some alkaloids in clinical trials and developing new drugs of neuropathic pain.

An Indole Alkaloid Extracted from Evodia rutaecarpa Inhibits Colonic Motility of Rats In Vitro

Evodiamine (Evo) is an indole alkaloid extracted from the traditional Chinese medicinal herb Evodia rutaecarpa. Evo may regulate gastrointestinal motility, but the evidence is insufficient, and the mechanisms remain unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Evo on colonic motility of rats and the underlying mechanisms in vitro. Rat colonic muscle was exposed to Evo (10 and 100 μM) followed by immunohistochemistry of cholecystokinin receptor 1 (CCK1R). Muscle contractions were studied in an organ bath system to determine whether CCK1R, nitric oxide (NO), and enteric neurons are involved in the relaxant effect of Evo. Whole-cell patch-clamp was used to detect L-type calcium currents (I_Ca,L) in isolated colonic smooth muscle cells (SMCs). CCK1R was observed in SMCs, intermuscular neurons, and mucosa of rat colon. Evo could inhibit spontaneous muscle contractions; NO synthase, inhibitor L-NAME CCK1R antagonist, could partly block this effect, while the enteric neurons may not play a major role. Evo inhibited the peak I_Ca,L in colonic SMCs at a membrane potential of 0 mV. The current-voltage (I–V) relationship of L-type calcium channels was modified by Evo, while the peak of the I–V curve remained at 0 mV. Furthermore, Evo inhibited the activation of L-type calcium channels and decreased the peak I_Ca,L. The relaxant effect of Evo on colonic muscle is associated with the inhibition of L-type calcium channels. The enteric neurons, NO, and CCK1R may be partly related to the inhibitory effect of Evo on colonic motility. This study provides the first evidence that evodiamine can regulate colonic motility in rats by mediating calcium homeostasis in smooth muscle cells. These data form a theoretical basis for the clinical application of evodiamine for treatment of gastrointestinal motility diseases.

Antiproliferative Effects of Alkaloid Evodiamine and Its Derivatives

Alkaloids, a category of natural products with ring structures and nitrogen atoms, include most U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved plant derived anti-cancer agents. Evodiamine is an alkaloid with attractive multitargeting antiproliferative activity. Its high content in the natural source ensures its adequate supply on the market and guarantees further medicinal study. To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic review about the antiproliferative effects of evodiamine derivatives. Therefore, in this article the review of the antiproliferative activities of evodiamine will be updated. More importantly, the antiproliferative activities of structurally modified new analogues of evodiamine will be summarized for the first time.

Improved delivery of natural alkaloids into lung cancer through woody oil-based emulsive nanosystems

Most antitumor ingredients found in nature have poor solubility. These ingredients are expected to have much better absorption and higher bioavailability than synthetic antitumor agents. Woody oil emulsive nanosystems carrying poorly soluble natural alkaloids were fabricated (evodiamine (EA) carried by fructus bruceae oil-based emulsive nanosystems, or EFEN). Fructus bruceae oil has two excipient-like properties (oil phase and stabilizer) that contribute to the formulation and one drug-like property (antitumor effects) that synergizes with the antitumor effect of EA. The properties of EFEN were compared with free EA, a blank nanoemulsion, an EA-loaded emulsive nanosystem, and a fructus bruceae oil-loaded emulsive nanosystem. For the first time, this suggests that increases in the sensitivity of lung cancer cells to poorly soluble natural alkaloids can be achieved by delivering drugs using woody oil-based emulsive nanosystems. In this study, woody oil-based emulsive nanosystems efficiently deliver poorly soluble natural alkaloids.

Evodiamine, a Novel NOTCH3 Methylation Stimulator, Significantly Suppresses Lung Carcinogenesis in Vitro and in Vivo

Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. NOTCH3 signaling is mainly expressed in non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC), and has been proposed as a therapeutic target of NSCLC. While, few agents for preventing or treating NSCLC via targeting NOTCH3 signaling are used in modern clinical practice. Evodiamine (EVO), an alkaloid derived from Euodiae Fructus, possesses low toxicity and has long been shown to exert anti-lung cancer activity. However, the underlying anti-lung cancer mechanisms of EVO are not yet fully understood. In this study, we explored the involvement of NOTCH3 signaling in the anti-lung cancer effects of EVO. Urethane-induced lung cancer mouse model and two NSCLC cell models, A549 and H1299, were used to evaluate the in vivo and in vitro anti-lung cancer action of EVO. A DNA methyltransferase inhibitor was employed to investigate the role of NOTCH3 signaling in the anti-lung cancer effects of EVO. Results showed that EVO potently reduced tumor size and tumor numbers in mice, and inhibited NOTCH3 in the tumors. EVO also dramatically reduced cell viability, induced G2/M cell cycle arrest, inhibited cell migration and reduced stemness in cultured NSCLC cells. Mechanistic studies showed that EVO potently inhibited NOTCH3 signaling by activation of DNMTs-induced NOTCH3 methylation. Importantly, inhibition of NOTCH3 methylation in NSCLC cells diminished EVO's anti-NSCLC effects. Collectively, EVO, a novel NOTCH3 methylation stimulator, exerted potent anti-lung cancer effects partially by inhibiting NOTCH3 signaling. These findings provide new insight into the EVO's anti-NSCLC action, and suggest a potential role of EVO in lung cancer prevention and treatment.

Efficient intracellular delivery makes cancer cells sensitive to nanoemulsive chemodrugs

Evodiamine has been documented to possess activities in numerous cancer cells. Our preliminary study showed that A549 cells were insensitive to evodiamine. In this paper, A549 cells are sensitive to nanoemulsive evodiamine (EVONE) through an efficient intracellular and systematic delivery. EVONE entered tumor cells by energy-dependent and mainly through clathrin-mediated endocytosis. EVONE exerted a higher cytotoxicity in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The enhanced induction of cell cycle arrest was ascribed to the down-regulation of cyclin B and cyclin dependent kinase 1, while the enhanced induction of apoptosis was due to the activation of caspase −3, −8 and −9 and the decreased B-cell lymphoma 2/ assaciated X protein ratio. Furthermore, the in vivo kinetic, bioavailability and in situ absorption characteristics of EVONE were much better than those of free evodiamine. The cancer cells insensitive to free chemodrugs became sensitive to nanoemulsive chemodrugs.