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El-Dessouki AM, Alzokaky AA, Raslan NA, Ibrahim S, Salama LA, Yousef EH. Piracetam mitigates nephrotoxicity induced by cisplatin via the AMPK-mediated PI3K/Akt and MAPK/JNK/ERK signaling pathways. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 137:112511. [PMID: 38909496 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 06/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
AIMS Cisplatin (CDDP) is commonly employed as an antineoplastic agent, but its use is significantly limited by the occurrence of dose-dependent nephrotoxicity, the detailed mechanisms of which remain unclear. This research is aimed to explore the molecular mechanisms of Piracetam (PIR)'s protective effects on nephrotoxicity resulting from CDDP exposure and to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for these effects. MAIN METHODS PIR was given in dosages of 100 and 300 mg/kg body weight for a duration of 15 days; concurrently, on the last day, a single 10 mg/kg dose of CDDP was delivered via intraperitoneal injection. Forty-eight hours post-CDDP injection, the animals were sacrificed to assess nephrotoxicity. Blood samples and renal tissues were taken for biochemical and histopathological investigations. Serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were measured. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), caspase-9 and nuclear factor kappa b p65 (NF-κB p65) were assessed by immunohistochemistry method. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis was employed to determine cytochrome c (Cyt. c), Bcl-2-associated X-protein (BAX), caspase-3, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels in renal tissue homogenates. The mRNA levels of tumor protein P53 (TP53), phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) were tested by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Additionally, histopathological evaluations of the renal tissues and the binding affinity of PIR to AMPK by molecular docking were also performed. KEY FINDINGS Pre-treatment with PIR enhanced renal function markers such as urea and creatinine, mitigated histological damage, and diminished inflammatory cell presence in renal tubules. PIR demonstrated antioxidant effects by reestablishing the equilibrium between pro-oxidants and antioxidants such as MPO, HO-1, Nrf2, as well as SOD. Furthermore, PIR inhibited the inflammatory pathways through the MAPK/NF-κB pathway. Additionally, PIR counteracted the CDDP-induced decline in PI3K/Akt activity and hindered caspase-dependent apoptotic processes. SIGNIFICANCE In summary, PIR appears to be an effective therapeutic strategy for reducing CDDP-induced nephrotoxicity, attributed to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic mechanisms. Consequently, PIR may serve as a complementary treatment alongside CDDP to alleviate nephrotoxicity associated with CDDP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed M El-Dessouki
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ahram Canadian University, 12566, Giza, Egypt
| | - Amany A Alzokaky
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Girls), Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11651, Egypt; Pharmacology and Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Horus University-Egypt, New Damietta 34518, Egypt
| | - Nahed A Raslan
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Girls), Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11651, Egypt; Clinical Pharmacy Program, College of Health Sciences and Nursing, Al-Rayan Colleges, Madina, Saudi Arabia
| | - Samar Ibrahim
- Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Galala University, Ataka, Egypt
| | - Lamiaa A Salama
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Horus University-Egypt, New Damietta 34518, Egypt
| | - Eman H Yousef
- Pharmacology and Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Horus University-Egypt, New Damietta 34518, Egypt.
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Zhang W, Yan C, Xiao Y, Sun Y, Lin Y, Li Q, Cai W. Sulfasalazine induces autophagy inhibiting neointimal hyperplasia following carotid artery injuries in mice. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1199785. [PMID: 37288359 PMCID: PMC10242098 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1199785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Neointimal hyperplasia (NH) is a crucial pathophysiological feature in vascular transplant and in-stent restenosis. Excessive proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play important roles in neointimal hyperplasia. This study aims to explore the potentialities and mechanism of sulfasalazine (SSZ) in the prevention of restenosis. Methods: Sulfasalazine was encapsulated in nanoparticles made of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA). In vivo, carotid ligation injury was induced in mice to induce Neointimal hyperplasia, with or without sulfasalazine containing nanoparticles (NP-SSZ) treatment. After 4 weeks, the arteries were collected for histology, immunofluorescence, Western blotting (WB) and qRT-PCR. In vitro, vascular smooth muscle cells were treated with TNF-α to induce cell proliferation and migration, followed by SSZ or vehicle treatment. WB was performed to further explore its mechanism. Results: The ratio of intima to media thickness (I/M) was increased after ligation injury on day 28, while the ratio was significantly reduced in the NP-SSZ treatment group. The dual positive nuclei of Ki-67 and α-SMA were 47.83% ± 9.15%, whereas only 29.83% ± 5.98% in the NP-SSZ-treated group (p < 0.05). Both MMP-2 and MMP-9 were decreased in the NP-SSZ treatment group (p < 0.05, p < 0.05, respectively) compared to the control group. The levels of the targeted inflammatory genes (TNF-α, VCAM-1, ICAM-1, MCP-1) were lower in the NP-SSZ treatment group compared with the control group. In vitro, the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression was significantly decreased in the SSZ treatment group. The cell viability of VSMCs was markedly increased in the TNF-α treatment group, whereas sulfasalazine treatment inhibited this effect. LC3 II and P62 protein expression were higher in the SSZ group than in the vehicle group both in vitro and in vivo. The phosphorylation of NF-kB (p-NF-kB) and the phosphorylation of mTOR (p-mTOR) were decreased in the TNF-α+ SSZ group, whereas the P62 and LC3 II expression levels were increased. However, the expression level of p-mTOR, P62, and LC3 II was reversed after co-treatment with the agonist of mTOR MHY1485, whereas the p-NF-kB expression level was unchanged. Conclusion: sulfasalazine inhibited vascular smooth muscle cells proliferation and migration in vitro and Neointimal hyperplasia in vivo through NF-kB/mTOR-mediated autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weichang Zhang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Cheng Yan
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yangyan Xiao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yuxin Sun
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Youjun Lin
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Qinglong Li
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wenwu Cai
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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Lkhagva B, Lee TW, Lin YK, Chen YC, Chung CC, Higa S, Chen YJ. Disturbed Cardiac Metabolism Triggers Atrial Arrhythmogenesis in Diabetes Mellitus: Energy Substrate Alternate as a Potential Therapeutic Intervention. Cells 2022; 11:cells11182915. [PMID: 36139490 PMCID: PMC9497243 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common type of sustained arrhythmia in diabetes mellitus (DM). Its morbidity and mortality rates are high, and its prevalence will increase as the population ages. Despite expanding knowledge on the pathophysiological mechanisms of AF, current pharmacological interventions remain unsatisfactory; therefore, novel findings on the underlying mechanism are required. A growing body of evidence suggests that an altered energy metabolism is closely related to atrial arrhythmogenesis, and this finding engenders novel insights into the pathogenesis of the pathophysiology of AF. In this review, we provide comprehensive information on the mechanistic insights into the cardiac energy metabolic changes, altered substrate oxidation rates, and mitochondrial dysfunctions involved in atrial arrhythmogenesis, and suggest a promising advanced new therapeutic approach to treat patients with AF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baigalmaa Lkhagva
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Wei Lee
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11696, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Kuo Lin
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Chang Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 11490, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Chih Chung
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Satoshi Higa
- Cardiac Electrophysiology and Pacing Laboratory, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Makiminato Central Hospital, Okinawa 901-2131, Japan
| | - Yi-Jen Chen
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Wan-Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11696, Taiwan
- Correspondence:
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Fan T, Hou Y, Ge W, Fan T, Feng X, Guo W, Song X, Gao R, Wang J. Phosphodiesterase 4D promotes angiotensin II-induced hypertension in mice via smooth muscle cell contraction. Commun Biol 2022; 5:81. [PMID: 35058564 PMCID: PMC8776755 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03029-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractHypertension is a common chronic disease, which leads to cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, and its prevalence is increasing. The cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) pathway participates in multiple cardiovascular diseases. Phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4 has been shown to regulate PKA activity via cAMP specific hydrolysis. However, whether PDE4-cAMP-PKA pathway influences hypertension remains unknown. Herein, we reveal that PDE4D (one of PDE4 isoforms) expression is upregulated in the aortas of experimental hypertension induced by angiotensin II (Ang II). Furthermore, knockout of Pde4d in mouse smooth muscle cells (SMCs) attenuates Ang II-induced hypertension, arterial wall media thickening, vascular fibrosis and vasocontraction. Additionally, we find that PDE4D deficiency activates PKA-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway to inhibit myosin phosphatase targeting subunit 1 (MYPT1)-myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation, relieving Ang II-induced SMC contraction in vitro and in vivo. Our results also indicate that rolipram, a PDE4 inhibitor, may be a potential drug for hypertension therapy.
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5
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Zheng H, Zhai W, Zhong C, Hong Q, Li H, Rui B, Zhu X, Que D, Feng L, Yu B, Huang G, Yin J, Li J, Yan J, Yang P. Nkx2-3 induces autophagy inhibiting proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells via AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway. J Cell Physiol 2021; 236:7342-7355. [PMID: 33928642 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Vascular remodeling and restenosis are common complications after percutaneous coronary intervention. Excessive proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play important roles in intimal hyperplasia-induced vascular restenosis. NK2 Homeobox 3 (Nkx2-3), a critical member of Nkx family, is involved in tissue differentiation and organ development. However, the role of Nkx2-3 in VSMCs proliferation and migration remains unknown. In this study, we used carotid balloon injury model and platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF)-treated VSMCs as in vivo and in vitro experimental models. EdU assay and CCK-8 assay were used to detect cell proliferation. Migration was measured by scratch test. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunohistochemistry staining were used to evaluate the intimal hyperplasia. The autophagy level was detected by fluorescent mRFP-GFP-LC3 in vitro and by transmission electron microscopy in vivo. It was shown that Nkx2-3 was upregulated both in balloon injured carotid arteries and PDGF-stimulated VSMCs. Adenovirus-mediated Nkx2-3 overexpression inhibited intimal hyperplasia after balloon injury, and suppressed VSMCs proliferation and migration induced by PDGF. Conversely, silencing of Nkx2-3 by small interfering RNA exaggerated proliferation and migration of VSMCs. Furthermore, we found that Nkx2-3 enhanced autophagy level, while the autophagy inhibitor 3-MA eliminated the inhibitory effect of Nkx2-3 on VSMCs proliferation and migration both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, Nkx2-3 promoted autophagy in VSMCs by activating the AMP-activated protein kinase/mammalian target of rapamycin (AMPK/mTOR) signaling pathway. These results demonstrated for the first time that Nkx2-3 inhibited VSMCs proliferation and migration through AMPK/mTOR-mediated autophagy.
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MESH Headings
- AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Animals
- Autophagy/drug effects
- Becaplermin/pharmacology
- Carotid Artery Injuries/enzymology
- Carotid Artery Injuries/genetics
- Carotid Artery Injuries/pathology
- Carotid Artery Injuries/prevention & control
- Cell Movement/drug effects
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Disease Models, Animal
- Homeodomain Proteins/genetics
- Homeodomain Proteins/physiology
- Male
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/enzymology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/ultrastructure
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/drug effects
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/enzymology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/ultrastructure
- Neointima
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Signal Transduction
- TOR Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transcription Factors/physiology
- Vascular Remodeling
- Rats
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Affiliation(s)
- Huajun Zheng
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Weicheng Zhai
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Chongbin Zhong
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qingqing Hong
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hekai Li
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Bowen Rui
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xingxing Zhu
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Dongdong Que
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Liyun Feng
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Bin Yu
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Guanlin Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jianlong Yin
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiacheng Li
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jing Yan
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Pingzhen Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Laboratory of Heart Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Heart Center of Zhujiang Hospital, Sino-Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart Failure, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Zhang X, Zhang Z, Wang P, Han Y, Liu L, Li J, Chen Y, Liu D, Wang J, Tian X, Zhao Q, Yan F. Bawei Chenxiang Wan Ameliorates Cardiac Hypertrophy by Activating AMPK/PPAR-α Signaling Pathway Improving Energy Metabolism. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:653901. [PMID: 34149410 PMCID: PMC8209424 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.653901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Bawei Chenxiang Wan (BCW), a well-known traditional Chinese Tibetan medicine formula, is effective for the treatment of acute and chronic cardiovascular diseases. In the present study, we investigated the effect of BCW in cardiac hypertrophy and underlying mechanisms. The dose of 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 g/kg BCW treated cardiac hypertrophy in SD rat model induced by isoprenaline (ISO). Our results showed that BCW (0.4 g/kg) could repress cardiac hypertrophy, indicated by macro morphology, heart weight to body weight ratio (HW/BW), left ventricle heart weight to body weight ratio (LVW/BW), hypertrophy markers, heart function, pathological structure, cross-sectional area (CSA) of myocardial cells, and the myocardial enzymes. Furthermore, we declared the mechanism of BCW anti-hypertrophy effect was associated with activating adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α) signals, which regulate carnitine palmitoyltransferase1β (CPT-1β) and glucose transport-4 (GLUT-4) to ameliorate glycolipid metabolism. Moreover, BCW also elevated mitochondrial DNA-encoded genes of NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1(ND1), cytochrome b (Cytb), and mitochondrially encoded cytochrome coxidase I (mt-co1) expression, which was associated with mitochondria function and oxidative phosphorylation. Subsequently, knocking down AMPK by siRNA significantly can reverse the anti-hypertrophy effect of BCW indicated by hypertrophy markers and cell surface of cardiomyocytes. In conclusion, BCW prevents ISO-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy by activating AMPK/PPAR-α to alleviate the disturbance in energy metabolism. Therefore, BCW can be used as an alternative drug for the treatment of cardiac hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Zhiying Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Pengxiang Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Yiwei Han
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Lijun Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Yichun Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Duxia Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Jinying Wang
- School of Medical Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoying Tian
- School of Medical Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qin Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Fengxia Yan
- School of Medical Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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7
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Preventive Aspects of Early Resveratrol Supplementation in Cardiovascular and Kidney Disease of Developmental Origins. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22084210. [PMID: 33921641 PMCID: PMC8072983 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The increase in the incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and kidney disease has stimulated research for strategies that could prevent, rather than just treat, both interconnected disorders. Resveratrol, a polyphenolic compound with pleiotropic biofunctions, has shown health benefits. Emerging epidemiological data supports that early life environmental insults are regarded as increased risks of developing CVDs and kidney disease in adulthood. Conversely, both disorders could be reversed or postponed by shifting interventions from adulthood to earlier stage by so-called reprogramming. The purpose of this review is first to highlight current epidemiological studies linking cardiovascular and renal programming to resulting CVD and kidney disease of developmental origins. This will be followed by a summary of how resveratrol could exert a positive influence on CVDs and kidney disease. This review also presents an overview of the evidence documenting resveratrol as a reprogramming agent to protect against CVD and kidney disease of developmental origins from animal studies and to outline the advances in understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms. Overall, this review reveals the need for future research to further clarify the reprogramming effects of resveratrol before clinical translation.
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8
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Hsu CN, Tain YL. Preventing Developmental Origins of Cardiovascular Disease: Hydrogen Sulfide as a Potential Target? Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10020247. [PMID: 33562763 PMCID: PMC7914659 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10020247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The cardiovascular system can be programmed by a diversity of early-life insults, leading to cardiovascular disease (CVD) in adulthood. This notion is now termed developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD). Emerging evidence indicates hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a crucial regulator of cardiovascular homeostasis, plays a pathogenetic role in CVD of developmental origins. Conversely, early H2S-based interventions have proved beneficial in preventing adult-onset CVD in animal studies via reversing programming processes by so-called reprogramming. The focus of this review will first summarize the current knowledge on H2S implicated in cardiovascular programming. This will be followed by supporting evidence for the links between H2S signaling and underlying mechanisms of cardiovascular programming, such as oxidative stress, nitric oxide deficiency, dysregulated nutrient-sensing signals, activation of the renin–angiotensin system, and gut microbiota dysbiosis. It will also provide an overview from animal models regarding how H2S-based reprogramming interventions, such as precursors of H2S and H2S donors, may prevent CVD of developmental origins. A better understanding of cardiovascular programming and recent advances in H2S-based interventions might provide the answers to bring down the global burden of CVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Ning Hsu
- Department of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan;
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - You-Lin Tain
- Department of Pediatrics, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
- Institute for Translational Research in Biomedicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +886-975-056-995; Fax: +886-7733-8009
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Zhao B, Li GP, Peng JJ, Ren LH, Lei LC, Ye HM, Wang ZY, Zhao S. Schizandrin B attenuates hypoxia/reoxygenation injury in H9c2 cells by activating the AMPK/Nrf2 signaling pathway. Exp Ther Med 2021; 21:220. [PMID: 33603829 PMCID: PMC7851604 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.9651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizandrin B exhibits prominent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and plays an important role in ameliorating myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. However, the underlying protective mechanisms remain to be elucidated. The aim of the present study was to explore the cardioprotective effects of schizandrin B against hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-induced H9c2 cell injury, focusing on the role of the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway in this process. The results showed that schizandrin B attenuated the H/R-induced decrease in cell viability and the increase in lactate dehydrogenase release, as well as the apoptosis rate in H9c2 cells. Schizandrin B also mitigated H/R-induced oxidative stress, as illustrated by the decrease in intracellular reactive oxygen species generation, malondialdehyde content and NADPH oxidase 2 expression, and the increase in antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities. In addition, schizandrin B reversed the H/R-induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1β (IL-1β) tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-6 and IL-8] and the downregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines (transforming growth factor-β and IL-10) in the culture supernatant. Notably, schizandrin B increased the expression of Nrf2, NAD(P)H: Quinone oxidoreductase (NQO-1) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in H/R-treated H9c2 cells, activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway. The cardioprotection of schizandrin B against H/R injury was inhibited by Nrf2 knockdown induced byNrf-2-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA; si-Nrf2) transfection. Furthermore, schizandrin B enhanced phosphorylated (p)-AMPK expression, while AMPK knockdown induced by AMPK-specific siRNA(si-AMPK) transfection remarkably eliminated schizandrin B-induced cardioprotection and reduced Nrf2 expression in H/R-treated H9c2 cells. Taken together, these results suggested that schizandrin B exerts cardioprotection on H/R injury in H9c2 cells due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities via activation of the AMPK/Nrf2 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
| | - Guang-Ping Li
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China.,Department of Cardiology, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular Disease, Tianjin Institute of Cardiology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300211, P.R. China
| | - Jian-Jun Peng
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
| | - Li-Hui Ren
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
| | - Li-Cheng Lei
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
| | - Hui-Ming Ye
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
| | - Zuo-Yan Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
| | - Sheng Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
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Peng M, Liu Y, Zhang XQ, Xu YW, Zhao YT, Yang HB. CTRP5-Overexpression Attenuated Ischemia-Reperfusion Associated Heart Injuries and Improved Infarction Induced Heart Failure. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:603322. [PMID: 33414720 PMCID: PMC7783420 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.603322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims: C1q/tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related protein 5 (CTRP5) belongs to the C1q/TNF-α related protein family and regulates glucose, lipid metabolism, and inflammation production. However, the roles of CTRP5 in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) associated with cardiac injuries and heart failure (HF) needs to be elaborated. This study aimed to investigate the roles of CTRP5 in I/R associated cardiac injuries and heart failure. Materials and Methods: Adeno-associated virus serum type 9 (AAV9)vectors were established for CTRP5 overexpression in a mouse heart (AAV9-CTRP5 mouse). AAV9-CTRP5, AMPKα2 global knock out (AMPKα2−/−)and AAV9-CTRP5+ AMPKα2−/− mice were used to establish cardiac I/R or infarction associated HF models to investigate the roles and mechanisms of CTRP5 in vivo. Isolated neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMS) transfected with or without CTRP5 adenovirus were used to establish a hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/O) model to study the roles and mechanisms of CTRP5 in vitro. Key Findings: CTRP5 was up-regulated after MI but was quickly down-regulated. CTRP5 overexpression significantly decreased I/R induced IA/AAR and cardiomyocyte apoptosis, and attenuated infarction area, and improved cardiac functions. Mechanistically, CTRP5 overexpression markedly increased AMPKα2 and ACC phosphorylation and PGC1-α expression but inhibited mTORC1 phosphorylation. In in vitro experiments, CTRP5 overexpression could also enhance AMPKα2 and ACC phosphorylation and protect against H/O induced cardiomyocytes apoptosis. Finally, we showed that CTPR5 overexpression could not protect against I/R associated cardiac injuries and HF in AMPKα2−/− mice. Significance: CTRP5 overexpression protected against I/R induced mouse cardiac injuries and attenuated myocardial infarction induced cardiac dysfunction by activating the AMPKαsignaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Peng
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiang-Qin Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ya-Wei Xu
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yin-Tao Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Hai-Bo Yang
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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11
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Antioxidant Effects of Salidroside in the Cardiovascular System. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2020; 2020:9568647. [PMID: 33062029 PMCID: PMC7533795 DOI: 10.1155/2020/9568647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is one of the main human health risks, and the incidence is increasing. Salidroside is an important bioactive component of Rhodiola rosea L., which is used to treat Alzheimer's disease, tumor, depression, and other diseases. Recent studies have shown that salidroside has therapeutic effects, to some degree, in cardiovascular diseases via an antioxidative mechanism. However, evidence-based clinical data supporting the effectiveness of salidroside in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases are limited. In this review, we discuss the effects of salidroside on cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular diseases and highlight potential antioxidant therapeutic strategies.
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12
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Matheson CJ, Casalvieri KA, Backos DS, Minhajuddin M, Jordan CT, Reigan P. Substituted oxindol-3-ylidenes as AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 197:112316. [PMID: 32334266 PMCID: PMC7409528 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central metabolic regulator that promotes cancer growth and survival under hypoxia and plays a role in the maintenance of cancer stem cells. A major challenge to interrogating the potential of targeting AMPK in cancer is the lack of potent and selective small molecule inhibitors. Compound C has been widely used as an AMPK inhibitor, but it lacks potency and has a poor selectivity profile. The multi-kinase inhibitor, sunitinib, has demonstrated potent nanomolar inhibition of AMPK activity and has scope for modification. Here, we have designed and synthesized several series of oxindoles to determine the structural requirements for AMPK inhibition and to improve selectivity. We identified two potent, novel oxindole-based AMPK inhibitors that were designed to interact with the DFG motif in the ATP-binding site of AMPK, this key feature evades interaction with the common recptor tyrosine kinase targets of sunitinib. Cellular engagement of AMPK by these oxindoles was confirmed by the inhibition of phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), a known substrate of AMPK, in myeloid leukemia cells. Interestingly, although AMPK is highly expressed and activated in K562 cells these oxindole-based AMPK inhibitors did not impact cell viability or result in significant cytotoxicity. Our studies serve as a platform for the further development of oxindole-based AMPK inhibitors with therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Matheson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 East Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Kimberly A Casalvieri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 East Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Donald S Backos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 East Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Mohammed Minhajuddin
- Division of Hematology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12700 E 19th Avenue, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Craig T Jordan
- Division of Hematology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12700 E 19th Avenue, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Philip Reigan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 East Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
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13
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Wang C, Zhu L, Yuan W, Sun L, Xia Z, Zhang Z, Yao W. Diabetes aggravates myocardial ischaemia reperfusion injury via activating Nox2-related programmed cell death in an AMPK-dependent manner. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:6670-6679. [PMID: 32351005 PMCID: PMC7299688 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases such as myocardial ischaemia have a high fatality rate in patients with diabetes. This study was designed to expose the crosstalk between oxidative stress and AMPK, a vital molecule that controls biological energy metabolism, in myocardial ischaemia reperfusion injury (I/RI) in diabetic rats. Diabetes was stimulated in rats using streptozotocin injection. Rats were separated on random into control, control + I/R, Diabetes, Diabetes + I/R, Diabetes + I/R + N-acetylcysteine and Diabetes + I/R + Vas2870 groups. Myocardial infarct size was determined, and the predominant Nox family isoforms were analysed. In vitro, the H9C2 cells were administered excess glucose and exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation to mimic diabetes and I/R. The AMPK siRNA or AICAR was used to inhibit or activate AMPK expression in H9C2 cells, respectively. Then, myocardial oxidative stress and programmed cell death were measured. Diabetes or high glucose levels were found to aggravate myocardial I/RI or hypoxia/reoxygenation in H9C2 cells, as demonstrated by an increase in myocardial infarct size or lactate dehydrogenase levels, oxidative stress generation and induction of programmed cell death. In diabetic rat hearts, cardiac Nox1, Nox2 and Nox4 were all heightened. The suppression of Nox2 expression using Vas2870 or Nox2-siRNA treatment in vivo or in vitro, respectively, protected diabetic rats from myocardial I/RI. AMPK gene knockout increased Nox2 protein expression while AMPK agonist decreased Nox2 expression. Therefore, diabetes aggravates myocardial I/RI by generating of Nox2-associated oxidative stress in an AMPK-dependent manner, which led to the induction of programmed cell death such as apoptosis, pyroptosis and ferroptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Wang
- Department of AnesthesiologyShenzhen People's Hospital and Shenzhen Anesthesiology Engineering CenterThe Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan UniversityShenzhenChina
- Department of PathophysiologySchool of MedicineShenzhen UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Lijie Zhu
- Department of AnesthesiologyShenzhen People's Hospital and Shenzhen Anesthesiology Engineering CenterThe Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Wenlin Yuan
- Department of AnesthesiologyShenzhen People's Hospital and Shenzhen Anesthesiology Engineering CenterThe Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Lingbin Sun
- Department of AnesthesiologyShenzhen People's Hospital and Shenzhen Anesthesiology Engineering CenterThe Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Zhengyuan Xia
- Department of AnesthesiologyLi Ka Shing Faculty of MedicineThe University of Hong KongHong KongChina
| | - Zhongjun Zhang
- Department of AnesthesiologyShenzhen People's Hospital and Shenzhen Anesthesiology Engineering CenterThe Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Weifeng Yao
- Department of AnesthesiologyThe Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
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14
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Gan L, Xie D, Liu J, Lau WB, Christopher TA, Lopez B, Zhang L, Gao E, Koch W, Ma XL, Wang Y. Small Extracellular Microvesicles Mediated Pathological Communications Between Dysfunctional Adipocytes and Cardiomyocytes as a Novel Mechanism Exacerbating Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Diabetic Mice. Circulation 2020; 141:968-983. [PMID: 31918577 PMCID: PMC7093230 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.119.042640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diabetes mellitus exacerbates myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury by incompletely understood mechanisms. Adipocyte dysfunction contributes to remote organ injury. However, the molecular mechanisms linking dysfunctional adipocytes to increased MI/R injury remain unidentified. The current study attempted to clarify whether and how small extracellular vesicles (sEV) may mediate pathological communication between diabetic adipocytes and cardiomyocytes, exacerbating MI/R injury. METHODS Adult male mice were fed a normal or a high-fat diet for 12 weeks. sEV (from diabetic serum, diabetic adipocytes, or high glucose/high lipid-challenged nondiabetic adipocytes) were injected intramyocardially distal of coronary ligation. Animals were subjected to MI/R 48 hours after injection. RESULTS Intramyocardial injection of diabetic serum sEV in the nondiabetic heart significantly exacerbated MI/R injury, as evidenced by poorer cardiac function recovery, larger infarct size, and greater cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Similarly, intramyocardial or systemic administration of diabetic adipocyte sEV or high glucose/high lipid-challenged nondiabetic adipocyte sEV significantly exacerbated MI/R injury. Diabetic epididymal fat transplantation significantly increased MI/R injury in nondiabetic mice, whereas administration of a sEV biogenesis inhibitor significantly mitigated MI/R injury in diabetic mice. A mechanistic investigation identified that miR-130b-3p is a common molecule significantly increased in diabetic serum sEV, diabetic adipocyte sEV, and high glucose/high lipid-challenged nondiabetic adipocyte sEV. Mature (but not primary) miR-130b-3p was significantly increased in the diabetic and nondiabetic heart subjected to diabetic sEV injection. Whereas intramyocardial injection of a miR-130b-3p mimic significantly exacerbated MI/R injury in nondiabetic mice, miR-130b-3p inhibitors significantly attenuated MI/R injury in diabetic mice. Molecular studies identified AMPKα1/α2, Birc6, and Ucp3 as direct downstream targets of miR-130b-3p. Overexpression of these molecules (particularly AMPKα2) reversed miR-130b-3p induced proapoptotic/cardiac harmful effect. Finally, miR-130b-3p levels were significantly increased in plasma sEV from patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Incubation of cardiomyocytes with diabetic patient sEV significantly exacerbated ischemic injury, an effect blocked by miR-130b-3p inhibitor. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate for the first time that miR-130b-3p enrichment in dysfunctional adipocyte-derived sEV, and its suppression of multiple antiapoptotic/cardioprotective molecules in cardiomyocytes, is a novel mechanism exacerbating MI/R injury in the diabetic heart. Targeting miR-130b-3p mediated pathological communication between dysfunctional adipocytes and cardiomyocytes may be a novel strategy attenuating diabetic exacerbation of MI/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Gan
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Translational Neuroscience Centre, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Dina Xie
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Wayne Bond Lau
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Theodore A. Christopher
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Bernard Lopez
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Ling Zhang
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Erhe Gao
- Center for Translational Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Walter Koch
- Center for Translational Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Xin-Liang Ma
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
- Corresponding authors: Yajing Wang, MD, PhD, Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, , Tel: (215) 955-8894 OR Xin-Liang Ma, MD, PhD, Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, , Tel: (215) 955-4994
| | - Yajing Wang
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
- Corresponding authors: Yajing Wang, MD, PhD, Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, , Tel: (215) 955-8894 OR Xin-Liang Ma, MD, PhD, Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, , Tel: (215) 955-4994
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15
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Yan J, Yan J, Wang Y, Ling Y, Song X, Wang S, Liu H, Liu Q, Zhang Y, Yang P, Wang X, Chen A. Spermidine-enhanced autophagic flux improves cardiac dysfunction following myocardial infarction by targeting the AMPK/mTOR signalling pathway. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:3126-3142. [PMID: 31077347 PMCID: PMC6692641 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Spermidine, a natural polyamine, is abundant in mammalian cells and is involved in cell growth, proliferation, and regeneration. Recently, oral spermidine supplements were cardioprotective in age-related cardiac dysfunction, through enhancing autophagic flux. However, the effect of spermidine on myocardial injury and cardiac dysfunction following myocardial infarction (MI) remains unknown. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We determined the effects of spermidine in a model of MI, Sprague-Dawley rats with permanent ligation of the left anterior descending artery, and in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCs) exposed to angiotensin II (Ang II). Cardiac function in vivo was assessed with echocardiography. In vivo and in vitro studies used histological and immunohistochemical techniques, along with western blots. KEY RESULTS Spermidine improved cardiomyocyte viability and decreased cell necrosis in NRCs treated with angiotensin II. In rats post-MI, spermidine reduced infarct size, improved cardiac function, and attenuated myocardial hypertrophy. Spermidine also suppressed the oxidative damage and inflammatory cytokines induced by MI. Moreover, spermidine enhanced autophagic flux and decreased apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. The protective effects of spermidine on cardiomyocyte apoptosis and cardiac dysfunction were abolished by the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine, indicating that spermidine exerted cardioprotective effects at least partly through promoting autophagic flux, by activating the AMPK/mTOR signalling pathway. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Our findings suggest that spermidine improved MI-induced cardiac dysfunction by promoting AMPK/mTOR-mediated autophagic flux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yan
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Jian‐Yun Yan
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Yu‐Xi Wang
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Yuan‐Na Ling
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Xu‐Dong Song
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Si‐Yi Wang
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Hai‐Qiong Liu
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Qi‐Cai Liu
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Ya Zhang
- Department of CardiologyXiangdong Affiliated Hospital of Hunan Normal UniversityZhuzhouHunanChina
| | - Ping‐Zhen Yang
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Xian‐Bao Wang
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
| | - Ai‐Hua Chen
- Laboratory of Heart Center and Department of Cardiology, Heart Center, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Guangdong Provincial Biomedical Engineering Technology Research Center for Cardiovascular DiseaseGuangzhouChina
- Laboratory of Heart Center, Sino‐Japanese Cooperation Platform for Translational Research in Heart FailureGuangzhouChina
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Bai F, Liu Y, Tu T, Li B, Xiao Y, Ma Y, Qin F, Xie J, Zhou S, Liu Q. Metformin regulates lipid metabolism in a canine model of atrial fibrillation through AMPK/PPAR-α/VLCAD pathway. Lipids Health Dis 2019; 18:109. [PMID: 31077199 PMCID: PMC6511207 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-019-1059-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Atrial lipid metabolic remodeling is critical for the process of atrial fibrillation (AF). Abnormal Fatty acid (FA) metabolism in cardiomyocytes is involved in the pathogenesis of AF. MET (Metformin), an AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) activator, has been found to be associated with a decreased risk of AF in patients with type 2 diabetes. However, the specific mechanism remains unknown. Methods Fifteen mongrel dogs were divided into three groups: SR, ARP (pacing with 800 beats/min for 6 h), ARP plus MET (treated with MET (100 mg/kg/day) for two weeks before pacing). We assessed metabolic factors, speed limiting enzymes circulating biochemical metabolites (substrates and products), atrial electrophysiology and accumulation of lipid droplets. Results The expression of AMPK increased in the ARP group and significantly increased in the MET+ARP group comparing to the SR group. In the ARP group, the expressions of PPARα、PGC-1α and VLCAD were down-regulated, while the concentration of free fatty acid and triglyceride and the lipid deposition in LAA (left atrial appendage) increased. Moreover, AERP and AERPd have also been found abnormally in this process. Pretreatment with MET before receiving ARP reversed the alterations aforementioned. Conclusions The FA metabolism in LAA is altered in the ARP group, mainly characterized by the abnormal expression of the rate-limiting enzyme. Metformin reduces lipid accumulation and promotes β-oxidation of FA in AF models partially through AMPK/PPAR-α/VLCAD pathway. Our study indicates that MET may inhibit the FA lipid metabolic remodeling in AF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Bai
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Yaozhong Liu
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Tao Tu
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Biao Li
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Yichao Xiao
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Yingxu Ma
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Fen Qin
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Jing Xie
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Shenghua Zhou
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Qiming Liu
- Department of Cardiology/Cardiac Catheterization Lab, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, No.139 Middle Renmin Road, Furong District, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China.
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17
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AMPK blunts chronic heart failure by inhibiting autophagy. Biosci Rep 2018; 38:BSR20170982. [PMID: 30021848 PMCID: PMC6050195 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20170982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a serine/threonine protein kinase, has been shown to exert a protective effect against cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Our previous reports have demonstrated that AMPK can inhibit cardiac hypertrophy and block the development of heart failure by promoting autophagy. However, other investigators have demonstrated that overactive and dysregulated autophagy may also contribute to the onset and exacerbation of heart failure. Thus, a major goal of the present investigation is to explore how AMPK regulates autophagy in heart failure. First, heart failure was induced in mice by 4 weeks of pressure overload; AMPK activation was subsequently induced by injecting 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-β-d-ribonucleotide (AICAR) after the establishment of chronic heart failure. We showed that AMPK activation significantly attenuated the progression of heart failure and improved cardiac function, which was accompanied by decreased autophagy levels in the failing hearts. Additionally, we demonstrated that the treatment with AICAR inhibited phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 1 (mTORC1) downstream effectors 4E-binding protein1 (4EBP1), and ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K). A major action of AICAR was significantly to activate AKT (Ser473), the downstream substrate of mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2). In conclusion, the data suggest that AMPK improved cardiac function during the development of chronic heart failure by attenuating autophagy, potentially via mTORC2 activation and the downstream effects.
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Gu X, Yan Y, Novick SJ, Kovach A, Goswami D, Ke J, Tan MHE, Wang L, Li X, de Waal PW, Webb MR, Griffin PR, Xu HE, Melcher K. Deconvoluting AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) adenine nucleotide binding and sensing. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:12653-12666. [PMID: 28615457 PMCID: PMC5535039 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.793018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central cellular energy sensor that adapts metabolism and growth to the energy state of the cell. AMPK senses the ratio of adenine nucleotides (adenylate energy charge) by competitive binding of AMP, ADP, and ATP to three sites (CBS1, CBS3, and CBS4) in its γ-subunit. Because these three binding sites are functionally interconnected, it remains unclear how nucleotides bind to individual sites, which nucleotides occupy each site under physiological conditions, and how binding to one site affects binding to the other sites. Here, we comprehensively analyze nucleotide binding to wild-type and mutant AMPK protein complexes by quantitative competition assays and by hydrogen-deuterium exchange MS. We also demonstrate that NADPH, in addition to the known AMPK ligand NADH, directly and competitively binds AMPK at the AMP-sensing CBS3 site. Our findings reveal how AMP binding to one site affects the conformation and adenine nucleotide binding at the other two sites and establish CBS3, and not CBS1, as the high affinity exchangeable AMP/ADP/ATP-binding site. We further show that AMP binding at CBS4 increases AMP binding at CBS3 by 2 orders of magnitude and reverses the AMP/ATP preference of CBS3. Together, these results illustrate how the three CBS sites collaborate to enable highly sensitive detection of cellular energy states to maintain the tight ATP homeostastis required for cellular metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Gu
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503
| | - Yan Yan
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503; VARI-SIMM Center, Center for Structure and Function of Drug Targets, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Scott J Novick
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Translational Research Institute, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Amanda Kovach
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503
| | - Devrishi Goswami
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Translational Research Institute, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Jiyuan Ke
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503
| | - M H Eileen Tan
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503; The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, United Kingdom
| | - Lili Wang
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503
| | - Xiaodan Li
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503
| | - Parker W de Waal
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503
| | - Martin R Webb
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick R Griffin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Translational Research Institute, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - H Eric Xu
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503; VARI-SIMM Center, Center for Structure and Function of Drug Targets, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Karsten Melcher
- Laboratories of Structural Sciences and Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503.
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Abstract
The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key regulator of cellular and whole-body energy homeostasis, which acts to restore energy homoeostasis whenever cellular energy charge is depleted. Over the last 2 decades, it has become apparent that AMPK regulates several other cellular functions and has specific roles in cardiovascular tissues, acting to regulate cardiac metabolism and contractile function, as well as promoting anticontractile, anti-inflammatory, and antiatherogenic actions in blood vessels. In this review, we discuss the role of AMPK in the cardiovascular system, including the molecular basis of mutations in AMPK that alter cardiac physiology and the proposed mechanisms by which AMPK regulates vascular function under physiological and pathophysiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian P Salt
- From the Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom (I.P.S.); and Division of Cell Signalling & Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom (D.G.H.).
| | - D Grahame Hardie
- From the Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom (I.P.S.); and Division of Cell Signalling & Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom (D.G.H.)
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