Smartphone Addiction and Beyond: Initial Insights on an Emerging Research Topic and Its Relationship to Internet Addiction

Could physical activity alleviate smartphone addiction in university students? A systematic literature review

Objectives

Recently, the widespread surge in smartphone addiction (SA) has raised major global health concerns and prompted researchers to scrutinize the inverse relationship between physical activity (PA) and the risk of SA. This systematic literature review aims to synthesize the empirical research on the relationship between PA and SA among university students representing the most affected age group.

Methods

Adopting the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, we explored five databases: PubMed, Social Sciences Research Network (SSRN), Oxford Research Archive, Journal Storage (JSTOR), and Google Scholar. We used the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tools (MMAT) for quality assessment.

Results

Thirty-one studies met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-eight of them were cross-sectional, and three were experimental. The 31 studies emerged from 12 countries, most stemming (45.16%) from China. Their findings suggest an inverse relationship between PA and SA in the examined population. However, the direct relationship may be weak based on correlational studies, while intervention research yields noteworthy effects. Still, other factors like resilience may mediate the studied relationship. Methodological concerns render the results of correlational studies tentative.

Conclusions

Regular PA could be a promising preventive measure for SA. Future work should use objective PA indices in longitudinal research designs while assessing the type and duration of smartphone applications used via device meters. In correlational studies, interviews should follow up on the high SA risk or too much device use. In conclusion, moderate evidence indicates that PA can reduce SA among university students.

The problematic use of smartphones in public: the development and validation of a measure of smartphone “zombie” behaviour

Purpose

We have witnessed an evolution in the use of smartphones in recent years. We have been aware for some time of the potentially deleterious impact of smartphones on users' lives and their propensity for user addiction, as reflected in the large and growing body of work on this topic. One modern phenomenon – the distracted mobile phone user in public, or “smartphone zombie” – has received limited research attention. The purpose of the present study is to develop a robust measure of smartphone zombie behaviour.

Design/methodology/approach

The research deign comprises three studies: A round of focus groups (n = 5) and two online surveys (survey one n = 373, survey two n = 386), in order to develop and validate a three-factor, 15-item measure named the Smartphone Zombie Scale (SZS).

Findings

Following the round of focus groups conducted, Exploratory Factor Analysis and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis, the SZS measure (Cronbach's α = .932) is demonstrated to be robust and comprises three factors: Attention Deficit (Cronbach's α = .922), Jeopardy (Cronbach's α = .817) and Preoccupation (Cronbach's α = .835), that is shown to be distinct to existing closely related measures (Smartphone Addiction scale and Obsessive Compulsive Use).

Originality/value

The present study represents the first extant attempt to produce a measure of smartphone zombie behaviour, and provides us with a reliable and valid measure with which we can study this growing phenomenon.

Mediating and moderating effects of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between social media addiction and phubbing

Presently, social media is widely used worldwide among different populations. Therefore, phubbing rapidly became a popular phenomenon in our daily life. However, little is known about the underlying mechanism and interaction between social media use and phubbing. Therefore, this research examines the mediating and moderating role of cognitive flexibility in the association between social media addiction and phubbing. Participants were 385 university students (280 females) studying at a state university in eastern Turkey and completed the self-reported measures of cognitive flexibility, social media addiction, and phubbing. The results showed that cognitive flexibility mediated and moderated the effect of social media addiction on phubbing. These findings may contribute to the discussion around the psychological consequences of using social media alongside increasing awareness about factors affecting and explaining the association between social media use and phubbing, which have important implications for research and practice.

Someone to Watch Over You: Using Bluetooth Beacons for Alerting Distracted Pedestrians

In the United States, an estimated 7,005 (crude rate 2.13) pedestrians were killed in traffic crashes in 2020, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This statistic is currently increasing annually and research suggests that distraction by smartphones may be a primary reason for the increasing number of pedestrian injuries and deaths. Timely interruptions may alert inattentive pedestrians and prevent fatalities. To this end, we developed StreetBit, a Bluetooth beacon-based system that warns distracted pedestrians with a visual and/or audible interruption when they approach a potentially dangerous traffic intersection while distracted by their smartphones. We posit that by using StreetBit, we can educate distracted pedestrians and elicit behavioral change to reduce or remove smartphone-based distractions when they enter and cross roadways. To demonstrate the feasibility of StreetBit, we conducted a field study with 385 participants. Results show that the system demonstrates adequate feasibility and behavior change in response to the StreetBit program.

A techno-psychological approach to understanding problematic use of short-form video applications: The role of flow

Short-form video applications (SVAs) have been gaining increasing popularity among users, which has raised the concern of problematic SVA use. Flow—a positive experience in which individuals feel immersion, enjoyment, temporal dissociation, and curiosity—contributes to the development of problematic SVA use. Most of the prior research examined the motivations of flow and the self-traits that trigger flow, but paid limited attention to the technological affordances of smartphone applications that facilitate users' flow. Algorithm recommendation, multimodality, and low-cost interaction are three affordances of SVAs. Thus, drawing upon the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) framework, this study proposes a mediation model to examine how these affordances influence problematic SVA use through flow. An online survey (N = 621) showed that algorithm recommendation was negatively associated with problematic SVA use but was not significantly correlated to flow. Multimodality was directly and positively associated with problematic SVA use. Meanwhile, the relationship between these two variables were mediated by flow. Low-cost interaction had an indirect link with problematic SVA use via flow, while the direct link between them was not significant. The results suggest that low-cost interaction is the affordance that is most likely to trigger flow and problematic SVA use, followed by multimodality. However, algorithm recommendation seems to be an affordance that is less likely to facilitate flow or cause problematic SVA use. Our proposed model not only enriches the S-O-R framework in the digital environment, but also denotes a techno-psychological approach to examine problematic use of SVAs and other digital applications. Moreover, the findings offer practical implications for optimizing SVAs' technological affordances to properly manage problematic SVA use.

Choice Hygiene for "Consumer Neuroscientists"? Ethical Considerations and Proposals for Future Endeavours

Is the use of psychological and neuroscientific methods for neuromarketing research always aligned with the principles of ethical research practice? Some neuromarketing endeavours have passed from informing consumers about available options, to helping to market as many products to consumers as possible. Needs are being engineered, using knowledge about the human brain to increase consumption further, regardless of individual, societal and environmental needs and capacities. In principle, the ground ethical principle of any scientist is to further individual, societal and environmental health and well-being with their work. If their findings can be used for the opposite, this must be part of the scientist's considerations before engaging in such research and to make sure that the risks for misuse are minimised. Against this backdrop, we provide a series of real-life examples and a non-exhaustive literature review, to discuss in what way some practices in the neuromarketing domain may violate the Helsinki Declaration of Experimentation with Human Subjects. This declaration was set out to regulate biomedical research, but has since its inception been applied internationally also to behavioural and social research. We illustrate, point by point, how these ground ethical principles should be applied also to the neuromarketing domain. Indisputably, the growth in consumption is required due to current prevalent economical models. Thus, in the final part of the paper, we discuss how alternative models may be promotable to a larger public, aided by more ethical marketing endeavours, based on neuroscientific discoveries about the human brain. We propose this as a philosophical question, a point of discussion for the future, to make neuromarketing as a discipline, fit for the future, respecting the ethical implications of this research.

Anxiety sensitivity mediates relations between anxiety (but not depression) and problematic smartphone use severity, adjusting for age and sex, in Chinese adolescents early in the COVID-19 pandemic

Risk factors for problematic smartphone use (PSU) have rapidly become an important area of research due to the prevalence of smartphones and functional impairment associated with PSU. Our aim was to examine relations between established predictors of PSU (depression and anxiety) and a potential mediator of PSU (anxiety sensitivity; AS). Participants (N = 4752) from junior and senior high schools in Tianjin, China completed a web‐based survey with measures of depression, anxiety, AS, and PSU. Descriptive and inferential analyses revealed significant differences between males and females on depression severity, and between junior and senior high school students on AS and PSU severity. Results of structural equation modeling indicated that anxiety was positively associated with AS when adjusting for depression; and AS was significantly associated with greater PSU severity, adjusting for age and sex. Additionally, AS mediated relations between anxiety and PSU severity. Current findings on AS are consistent with theoretical models of problematic internet use (Interaction of Person‐Affect‐Cognition‐Execution) and previous research linking AS to other kinds of behavioral addictions (e.g., smoking, alcohol use).

Design Bioethics: A Theoretical Framework and Argument for Innovation in Bioethics Research

Empirical research in bioethics has developed rapidly over the past decade, but has largely eschewed the use of technology-driven methodologies. We propose "design bioethics" as an area of conjoined theoretical and methodological innovation in the field, working across bioethics, health sciences and human-centred technological design. We demonstrate the potential of digital tools, particularly purpose-built digital games, to align with theoretical frameworks in bioethics for empirical research, integrating context, narrative and embodiment in moral decision-making. Purpose-built digital tools can engender situated engagement with bioethical questions; can achieve such engagement at scale; and can access groups traditionally under-represented in bioethics research and theory. If developed and used with appropriate rigor, tools motivated by "design bioethics" could offer unique insights into new and familiar normative and empirical issues in the field.

The relationships between negative emotions and latent classes of smartphone addiction

The relationships between negative emotions and smartphone addiction has been tested through the literature. However, most of the studies applied variable-centered approaches. The heterogeneity of smartphone addiction severity has not been examined for the associations with negative emotion variables. The purposes of the present study is to explore the latent classes of smartphone addiction and analyze the relationships between depression, social anxiety and boredom and these subgroups. The Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version (SAS-SV) and three negative emotion scales were employed to conduct a survey of 539 college students. Mplus8.3 software was applied to perform the latent class analysis (LCA) based on the smartphone addiction symptom ratings. ANOVA and multinomial logistic regression were used to explore the differences among these latent categories and the associations between these subgroups and negative emotion variables. Results demonstrated that Negative emotional variables were significantly correlated with smartphone addiction proneness. Based on their scores on the Smartphone Addiction Scale, smartphone users were divided into three latent classes: low risk class, moderate class and high risk class. Women were more likely to be classified in the high-risk class. The severity of depression and boredom was able to predict the membership of the latent class effectively; while social anxiety failed to do this in the high risk class.

How to overcome taxonomical problems in the study of Internet use disorders and what to do with "smartphone addiction"?

AIMS

The present theoretical paper introduces the smartphone technology as a challenge for diagnostics in the study of Internet use disorders and reflects on the term "smartphone addiction."

METHODS

Such a reflection is carried out against the background of a literature review and the inclusion of Gaming Disorder in ICD-11.

RESULTS

We believe that it is necessary to divide research on Internet use disorder (IUD) into a mobile and non-mobile IUD branch. This is important because certain applications such as the messenger application WhatsApp have originally been developed for smartphones and enfold their power and attractiveness mainly on mobile devices.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Going beyond the argumentation for distinguishing between mobile and non-mobile IUD, it is of high relevance for scientists to better describe and understand what persons are actually (over-)using. This is stressed by a number of examples, explicitly targeting not only the diverse contents used in the online world, but also the exact behavior on each platform. Among others, it matters if a person is more of an active producer of content or passive consumer of social media.

The Mediating Effect of Insecure Adult Attachment on the Relationship between Smartphone Addiction and Self-Directed Learning in University Students

(1) Purpose: This study aimed to explore the mediating effect of insecure adult attachment on the relationship between smartphone addiction and self-directed learning in university students. (2) Methods: In total, 235 university students participated in this study. Data analysis was carried out through a three-stage verification procedure: Sobel test using technical statistics, Pearson correlation, and multiple regression analysis. (3) Results: Smartphone addiction was positively correlated with insecure adult attachment, attachment anxiety, and self-directed learning, whereas self-directed learning had a significant negative correlation with insecure adult attachment and attachment anxiety. Insecure adult attachment had a mediating effect on the relationship between smartphone addiction and self-directed learning. (4) Conclusion: Higher levels of smartphone addiction indicated higher levels of insecure adult attachment and reduced self-directed learning ability. Therefore, while the prevention of smartphone addiction is critical for improving self-directed learning skills, programs should be developed to foster the formation of secure adult attachment among university students.

The association between the Big Five personality traits and smartphone use disorder: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Personality is one of the most frequently investigated variables to shed light on the putatively addictive use of the smartphone. By investigating associations between personality and individual differences in addictive smartphone use, researchers aim to understand if some personality traits predispose technology users to develop addictive behaviors. Here, based on existing empirical literature, we aimed at determining the strength of associations between Big Five personality traits and smartphone use disorder (SmUD) by a meta-analytic approach.

METHOD

For each Big Five personality trait, we performed a meta-analysis of correlations representing their association with SmUD. We also investigated possible publication bias and the moderating effects of age, gender, nationality, length of personality assessments, and time of publication.

RESULTS

We found n = 26 eligible studies. In line with both the Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model and the framework on problematic mobile-phone use by Billieux, we observed a positive association between Neuroticism and SmUD (r = 0.25), while the association between Extraversion and SmUD was not significant. Partially in line with the aforementioned theoretical frameworks, Conscientiousness was negatively associated with SmUD (r = -0.16). Remaining traits showed smaller associations. No significant publication bias emerged. Moderator analyses showed that time of publication moderated the link between Conscientiousness and SmUD. Moreover, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness showed a heightened inverse association with SmUD among older samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The present meta-analysis provides robust empirical evidence that Big Five personality traits can help to understand individual differences in SmUD, supporting the usefulness of their assessment when planning and targeting interventions aimed at at-risk individuals.

Patterns, influencing factors and mediating effects of smartphone use and problematic smartphone use among migrant workers in Shanghai, China

BACKGROUND

With the popularization of smartphones in China, the conditions of smartphone use (SU) and problematic smartphone use (PSU) among migrant workers are unknown. This study explored the patterns and influencing factors of SU and PSU in migrant workers in Shanghai, China. Furthermore, the mediation effects of PSU in the link between SU and some psychological factors were also examined.

METHODS

Questionnaires containing the Mobile Phone Addiction Index, Patient Health Questionnaire, World Health Organization Five-item Well-being Index and other items, including demographics, sleep quality, job stress and SU, were distributed to 2330 migrant workers by trained investigators in six districts of Shanghai from June to September 2018.

RESULTS

Of the 2129 returned questionnaires, 2115 were valid. SU and PSU varied according to certain demographics. Many demographics, psychological factors, sleep quality and main smartphone applications were influencing factors for SU and PSU. PSU played a mediating role in the link between daily SU time and psychological factors, including depression, mental health and job stress.

CONCLUSIONS

The health influences of SU and PSU on migrant workers in Shanghai merit significant attention. Additionally, it is necessary to develop and target intervention strategies according to the workers' various characteristics and SU patterns.

The Multipurpose Application WeChat: A Review on Recent Research

With currently over one billion monthly active users, the Chinese social media and multipurpose application WeChat (, Wēixìn, micro-message) has become one of the world's most popular social media platforms. Despite its enormous number of users in Asia, WeChat is still not well known in Western countries. Against this background, the present review aims to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview on the functionality of this application, comparison with other popular applications such as Facebook/WhatsApp and previous research. Although WeChat has become an integral part of everyday life for many users, research has only recently begun to examine the impact of this development on the societal and individual levels. The present review summarizes the literature on this topic with a focus on the motives to engage in using the app and potential detrimental effects of excessive use. In the context of the growing popularity and increasing usage times of the app - in particular in Asian countries - future research seems warranted to examine systematically how social media platforms such as WeChat will affect interpersonal communication behavior, well-being, and mental health. The direct comparison of WeChat's influence on the mentioned variables compared with its competitors Facebook and WhatsApp often used in Western countries will also be of high importance.

Internet Communication Disorder and the structure of the human brain: initial insights on WeChat addiction

WeChat represents one of the most popular smartphone-based applications for communication. Although the application provides several useful features that simplify daily life, a growing number of users spend excessive amounts of time on the application. This may lead to interferences with everyday life and even to addictive patterns of use. In the context of the ongoing discussion on Internet Communication Disorder (ICD), the present study aimed to better characterize the addictive potential of communication applications, using WeChat as an example, by examining associations between individual variations in tendencies towards WeChat addiction and brain structural variations in fronto-striatal-limbic brain regions. To this end levels of addictive tendencies, frequency of use and structural MRI data were assessed in n = 61 healthy participants. Higher tendencies towards WeChat addiction were associated with smaller gray matter volumes of the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, a key region for monitoring and regulatory control in neural networks underlying addictive behaviors. Moreover, a higher frequency of the paying function was associated with smaller nucleus accumbens volumes. Findings were robust after controlling for levels of anxiety and depression. The present results are in line with previous findings in substance and behavioral addictions, and suggest a similar neurobiological basis in ICD.

Accident risk associated with smartphone addiction: A study on university students in Korea

Background and aims The smartphone is one of the most popular devices, with the average smartphone usage at 162 min/day and the average length of phone usage at 15.79 hr/week. Although significant concerns have been made about the health effects of smartphone addiction, the relationship between smartphone addiction and accidents has rarely been studied. We examined the association between smartphone addiction and accidents among South Korean university students. Methods A total of 608 college students completed an online survey that included their experience of accidents (total number; traffic accidents; falls/slips; bumps/collisions; being trapped in the subway, impalement, cuts, and exit wounds; and burns or electric shocks), their use of smartphone, the type of smartphone content they most frequently used, and other variables of interests. Smartphone addiction was estimated using Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale, a standardized measure developed by the National Institution in Korea. Results Compared with normal users, participants who were addicted to smartphones were more likely to have experienced any accidents (OR = 1.90, 95% CI: 1.26-2.86), falling from height/slipping (OR = 2.08, 95% CI: 1.10-3.91), and bumps/collisions (OR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.16-2.87). The proportion of participants who used their smartphones mainly for entertainment was significantly high in both the accident (38.76%) and smartphone addiction (36.40%) groups. Discussion and conclusions We suggest that smartphone addiction was significantly associated with total accident, falling/slipping, and bumps/collisions. This finding highlighted the need for increased awareness of the risk of accidents with smartphone addiction.

Smartphone addiction, daily interruptions and self-reported productivity

The advent of the smartphone has dramatically altered how we communicate, navigate, work and entertain ourselves. While the advantages of this new technology are clear, constant use may also bring negative consequences, such as a loss of productivity due to interruptions in work life. A link between smartphone overuse and loss of productivity has often been hypothesized, but empirical evidence on this question is scarce. The present study addressed this question by collecting self-report data from N = 262 participants, assessing private and work-related smartphone use, smartphone addiction and self-rated productivity. Our results indicate a moderate relationship between smartphone addiction and a self-reported decrease in productivity due to spending time on the smartphone during work, as well as with the number of work hours lost to smartphone use. Smartphone addiction was also related to a greater amount of leisure time spent on the smartphone and was strongly related to a negative impact of smartphone use on daily non-work related activities. These data support the idea that tendencies towards smartphone addiction and overt checking of the smartphone could result in less productivity both in the workplace and at home. Results are discussed in relation to productivity and technostress.