Roles of Grp78 in Female Mammalian Reproduction

Endoplasmic reticulum stress in abdominal aortic aneurysm

Abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) are characterized by permanent dilatation of the abdominal aorta, which is accompanied by inflammation, degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and disruption of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) homeostasis. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is involved in the regulation of inflammation, oxidative stress and VSMC apoptosis, all of which are critical factors in AAA development. Although several studies have revealed the occurrence of ER stress in AAA development, the specific biological functions of ER stress in AAA development remain largely unknown. Given that targeting ER stress is a promising strategy for treating AAAs, further investigation of the physiological and pathological roles of ER stress in AAA development is warranted.

Zinc-Mediated Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Metallothionein Alleviate Arsenic-Induced Cardiotoxicity in Cyprinus Carpio

Arsenic (As) is a natural component of the Earth's crust, and its inorganic form is highly toxic. The problem of As pollution in water is extremely urgent, and its impact on aquatic organisms should be widely considered. Here, 120 common carp were selected as the test subjects and were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of As (2.83 mg L- 1) for 30 days. Histomorphological observations showed the adverse effects of As on the heart: irregular arrangement of myocardial fibers, rupture of muscle fiber bundles, inflammatory infiltration, and hemorrhages. Mechanistically, abnormal expression of factors related to As-induced inflammation (TLR4/MYD88/NF-κB pathway), endoplasmic reticulum stress (CHOP, GRP78, ATF6, PERK, IRE1) and oxidative stress (SOD, CAT, Nrf2, HO-1) was observed. Then, we tried to find a protective agent against As-induced myocardial injury. As one of the important metal elements for maintaining cell growth and immunity, zinc (Zn, 1 mg L- 1) significantly alleviated the pathological abnormalities induced by As, and the changes in physiological and biochemical indices in response to As exposure were significantly alleviated by Zn administration, which was accompanied by the restoration of metallothionein (ZIP8, Znt1, Znt5, Znt7) and heat shock protein (HSP60, HSP70, HSP90) expression. These results suggest for the possibilty of developing Zn as a candidate therapeutic agent for As induced aquatic toxicology.

Boric Acid Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury in Mice

Acute lung injury (ALI) poses a significant medical challenge due to its widespread occurrence and high mortality rates. Despite extensive efforts, current clinical interventions for ALI have shown limited success. Inflammation plays a central role within ALI progress, and boric acid (BA) has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties both in vitro and in vivo. However, its potential to mitigate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI remains an area awaiting exploration in research. To bridge this research gap, we created a mouse model of ALI induced by intraperitoneal LPS injection. We employed a comprehensive set of evaluation criteria, including H&E staining, wet/dry ratio measurement, malondialdehyde (MDA)/superoxide dismutase (SOD) the oxidative stress-related biomarkers, assessment of alveolar edema, hemorrhage, inflammatory cell infiltration, and examination of thickened alveolar septum to quantify lung injury. Additionally, we measured inflammatory cytokine levels using ELISA and assessed Nrf2 and HO-1 expressions through western blotting and quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR). ER stress-related markers (GRP78, CHOP) were analyzed through western blot analysis. Our findings revealed that prophylactic treatment with BA effectively attenuated LPS-induced ALI, as supported by improved pathological alterations, decreased total protein concentration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and reduced pulmonary edema. Furthermore, BA exhibited anti-inflammatory properties by suppressing inflammatory cytokines within the lung tissue. BA ingestion caused upregulation in SOD and a decrease in MDA contents in lung tissue homogenates. BA downregulated the levels of GRP78 and CHOP compared to the LPS group. Remarkably, BA also upregulated transcription and protein expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 compared to the LPS group. In conclusion, our study highlights BA's potential as a novel promising prophylactic agent for LPS-induced ALI, offering avenue for improving clinical management of this condition.

Seasonal changes in endoplasmic reticulum stress and steroidogenesis in the ovary of the wild ground squirrels (Citellus dauricus Brandt)

The development of the follicle is accompanied by steroidogenesis and secretion, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) requires significant synthesis of relevant proteins to support changes in the follicular microenvironment. The aim of this study was to investigate whether seasonal changes in gonadotropins and ovarian steroid hormones in the wild ground squirrels induce endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and changes in ERS-mediated unfolded protein response (UPR) signaling. There were significant seasonal differences in ovarian mass, with values higher in the breeding season and relatively low in the non-breeding season. Histological observations revealed that ovaries in the breeding season had germ cells including primordial follicles, primary follicles, secondary follicles, tertiary follicles, and the corpus luteal, whereas ovaries consisted mainly of primary and secondary follicles in the non-breeding season. Analysis of ovarian transcriptome data showed that 1298 genes were up-regulated in expression and 1432 genes were down-regulated in expression during both periods. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis indicated that these genes were mainly enriched in estrogen signaling pathways, ovarian steroidogenesis and endoplasmic reticulum protein processing pathways. The expression levels of steroidogenic enzymes (P450scc, P450c17, 3β-HSD, and P450arom) and gonadotropin receptor (FSHR and LHR) were significantly increased during the breeding season compared to the non-breeding season. GRP78 and UPR signaling factors (ATF4, ATF6, XBP1s) associated with ERS were expressed in both seasons. The mRNA expressions of Atf6 and Xbp1s were higher in the breeding season than those of the non-breeding season. Conversely, Atf4 and its downstream homologous protein (Chop) exhibited higher expression during the non-breeding season. In addition, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol-17β, and progesterone of serum were significantly higher in the breeding season than those of the non-breeding season. These results suggested that UPR signaling, associated with seasonal changes in ovarian steroidogenesis, was activated during the breeding season and that ERS might be involved in regulating seasonal changes in ovarian steroidogenesis in the wild ground squirrels.

Unveiling the dark side of glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) in cancers and other human pathology: a systematic review

Glucose-Regulated Protein 78 (GRP78) is a chaperone protein that is predominantly expressed in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. GRP78 plays a crucial role in protein folding by assisting in the assembly of misfolded proteins. Under cellular stress conditions, GRP78 can translocate to the cell surface (csGRP78) were it interacts with different ligands to initiate various intracellular pathways. The expression of csGRP78 has been associated with tumor initiation and progression of multiple cancer types. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the existing evidence on the roles of GRP78 in various types of cancer and other human pathology. Additionally, the review discusses the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying GRP78's involvement in tumorigenesis and cancer advancement. Furthermore, we highlight recent innovative approaches employed in downregulating GRP78 expression in cancers as a potential therapeutic target.

Silica nanoparticles induce ovarian granulosa cell apoptosis via activation of the PERK-ATF4-CHOP-ERO1α pathway-mediated IP3R1-dependent calcium mobilization

Ambient particulate matters (PMs) have adverse effects in human and animal female reproductive health. Silica nanoparticles (SNPs), as a major component of PMs, can induce follicular atresia via the promotion of ovarian granulosa cell apoptosis. However, the molecular mechanisms of apoptosis induced by SNPs are not very clear. This work focuses on revealing the mechanisms of ER stress on SNP-induced apoptosis. Our results showed that spherical Stöber SNPs (110 nm, 25.0 mg/kg b.w.) induced follicular atresia via the promotion of granulosa cell apoptosis by intratracheal instillation in vivo; meanwhile, SNPs decreased the viability and increase apoptosis in granulosa cells in vitro. SNPs were taken up and accumulated in the vesicles of granulosa cells. Additionally, our results found that SNPs increased calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration in granulosa cell cytoplasm. Furthermore, SNPs activated ER stress via an increase in the PERK and ATF6 pathway-related protein levels and IP3R1-dependent calcium mobilization via an increase in IP3R1 level. In addition, 4-PBA restored IP3R1-dependent calcium mobilization and decreased apoptosis via the inhibition of ER stress. The ATF4-C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP)-ER oxidoreductase 1 alpha (ERO1α) pathway regulated SNP-induced IP3R1-dependent calcium mobilization and cell apoptosis via ATF4, CHOP, and ERO1α depletion in ovarian granulosa cells. Herein, we demonstrate that ER stress cooperated in SNP-induced ovarian toxicity via activation of IP3R1-mediated calcium mobilization, leading to apoptosis, in which the PERK-ATF4-CHOP-ERO1α pathway plays an essential role in ovarian granulosa cells.

Expression of Locally Produced Adipokines and Their Receptors during Different Physiological and Reproductive Stages in the Bovine Corpus Luteum

This study aimed to determine the gene expression of different local novel adipokines, such as vaspin, adiponectin, visfatin, and resistin, and their known receptors, namely, heat shock 70 protein 5, adiponectin receptor 1, and adiponectin receptor 2, in the bovine corpus luteum (CL) during different phases of the estrous cycle (on days 1-2, 3-4, 5-7, 8-12, 13-18, >18) and pregnancy (at months 1-2, 3-4, 5-7, >7). The mRNA expression was measured by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The mRNA expression levels were normalized to the geometric mean of all three constantly expressed reference genes (cyclophilin A, ubiquitin, ubiquitin C). Our findings suggest that adipokines are expressed and present in all investigated groups, and are specifically up- or downregulated during the estrus cycle and during pregnancy. Vaspin and adiponectin levels were upregulated in the middle and late cycle stages. Resistin was abundant during the CL regression stage and in the first months of pregnancy. The specific expression of adipokine receptors indicates their involvement in the local mechanisms that regulate CL function. Further investigations are required to elucidate the regulative mechanisms underlying the different local effects of adipokines on the ovarian physiology of cows.

Roles of selenoprotein K in oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress under selenium deficiency in chicken liver

Selenoprotein K (SELENOK) is a major part of selenoprotein family. Selenoproteins have been proven playing vital roles in a variety of physiological processes. However, as a necessary supplement to the body of trace elements, how SELENOK regulates necroptosis in chicken liver has none clear claim. The purpose of this study was to cover the mechanism of SELENOK act in necroptosis of chicken liver. By feeding Se-deficiency diet for 1-day-old hyline chickens, we successfully built SELENOK-deficiency and discussed the regulation SELENOK have done. The test of liver function showed there has dysfunction appeared in the -Se groups. Results of TEM showed necroptosis occurred in the 35-Se group. After that western blot and qRT-PCR results prompted us SELENOK-deficiency caused large accumulation of ROS, enhanced endoplasmic reticulum stress, abnormally elevated HSPs family expression, and activated RIPK1-RIPK3 complex. In order to show the regulation of SELENOK in chicken liver, we artificially knocked off SELENOK gene in LMH cells. Through AO/EB staining we also found necroptosis in the siRNA-Se group. Furthermore, the results in LMH cells were coincided with those in chicken (Gallus gallus) liver. Our experiment clarified the molecular mechanism of SELENOK in the regulation and liver necroptosis, and provided reference for the healthy feeding mode of broilers.

Upregulation of Glutaminyl Cyclase Contributes to ERS-Induced Apoptosis in PC12 Cells

Glutaminyl cyclase (QC) is responsible for converting the N-terminal glutaminyl and glutamyl of the proteins into pyroglutamate (pE) through cyclization. It has been confirmed that QC catalyzes the formation of neurotoxic pE-modified Aβ in the brain of AD patients. But the effects of upregulated QC in diverse diseases have not been much clear until recently. Here, RNA sequencing was applied to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in PC12 cells with QC overexpressing or knockdown. A total of 697 DEGs were identified in QC overexpressing cells while only 77 in QC knockdown cells. Multiple bioinformatic approaches revealed that the DEGs in QC overexpressing group were enriched in endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) related signaling pathways. The gene expression patterns of 23 DEGs were confirmed by RT-qPCR, in which the genes related to ERS showed the highest consistency. We also revealed the protein levels of GRP78, PERK, CHOP, and PARP-1, and caspase family was significantly upregulated by overexpressing QC. Moreover, overexpressing QC significantly increased apoptosis of PC12 cells in a time dependent manner. However, no significant alteration was observed in QC knockdown cells. Therefore, our study indicated that upregulated QC could induce ERS and apoptosis, which consequently trigger diseases by catalyzing the generation of pE-modified mediators.

GRP78 plays a key role in sperm function via the PI3K/PDK1/AKT pathway

Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), which is commonly found in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is involved in stabilizing ER proteins and inducing the unfolded protein response. Furthermore, GRP78 is expressed on the surface of most common cancer cells, such as cells of breast, lung, liver, and prostate cancers, and plays a role in apoptosis and cell proliferation via the PI3K/PDK1/AKT signaling pathway. Therefore, various trials have been performed for evaluating cancer treatment by inhibiting GRP78. Moreover, GRP78 is expressed on the surface of spermatozoa; however, its role in spermatozoa physiology remains unclear. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the effects of GRP78 on sperm function during capacitation and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Boar spermatozoa were exposed to various concentrations of HA15, a GRP78 antagonist, and sperm kinematic parameters, capacitation status, cell viability, levels of PI3K/PDK1/AKT-pathway related proteins, and tyrosine phosphorylation were evaluated. GRP78 inhibition significantly decreased sperm motility, kinematic parameters, capacitated and acrosome-reacted spermatozoa counts, and cell viability. Moreover, GRP78 expression was significantly decreased in HA15-treated spermatozoa compared to that in the control group, and levels of PI3K/PDK1/AKT-pathway related proteins changed significantly. Furthermore, tyrosine phosphorylation was significantly altered in the HA15-treated group. The results of this study suggest that GRP78 inhibition in cancer therapy may negatively affect sperm function. These results lay a strong foundation for future studies aiming to identify the molecular mechanisms related to GRP78 in spermatozoa.

The role of endoplasmic reticulum stress in the pathophysiology of periodontal disease

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a principal organelle for folding, post-translational modifications and transport of secretory, luminal, and membrane proteins. ER stress is a condition induced by the accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins owing to a variety of physiological and pathological phenomena. To overcome the deleterious effects of ER stress, unfolded protein response (UPR) is initiated to translocate and remove the misfolded and accumulated proteins. Plenty of evidence shows the correlation between ER stress/UPR and the pathology of inflammatory disease. Periodontal disease is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the irreversible destruction of periodontal tissues, which associates with the onset and progress of several systemic diseases. Periodontopathic bacterium and pro-inflammatory mediators play a pivotal role in the progress of periodontal disease. Besides, cigarette smoke has long been associated with periodontal disease. As an inflammatory disorder of the periodontium, periodontal disease is highly related to ER stress. In this review, we provide an overview of the pathophysiological effect of ER stress on periodontal disease through five aspects as follow: ER stress and periodontal tissue remodeling, including both soft tissue and hard tissue; ER stress and the inflammation; ER stress and systematic effect during the periodontal disease; last but not least, ER stress and the autophagic apoptosis in cells.

Irisin alleviates high glucose-induced hypertrophy in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress

BACKGROUND

Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) plays an important role in the process of myocardial hypertrophy in diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM). Irisin, a novel cytokine, has been found to protect against cardiac diastolic dysfunction in DCM. We aimed to investigate the role of irisin in cardiac hypertrophy and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

H9c2 cells were induced with 33 mM glucose to construct a cardiac hypertrophy cell model, which was then treated with irisin in the presence or absence of the ERS inducer tunicamycin (TM). The cell surface area was measured by FITC-phalloidin staining. The atrial natriuretic peptide levels were detected by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Furthermore, the expression of the ERS-related proteins, P-PERK, PERK, IRE1α and GRP78, was detected by western blotting.

RESULTS

Irisin significantly reduced myocardial hypertrophy and suppressed high glucose (HG)-induced oxidative stress. Meanwhile, the protective effect of irisin on cardiomyoblasts was reversed by the ERS inducer, TM. Additionally, we detected ERS-associated signaling pathway proteins and found that irisin significantly reduced the protein expression levels of GRP78 and p-PERK/PERK.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that irisin ameliorates HG-induced cardiac hypertrophy by inhibiting ERS.

Esculentoside A alleviates cognitive deficits and amyloid pathology through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ-dependent mechanism in an Alzheimer's disease model

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized clinically by cognitive deficits and pathologically by amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition and tau aggregation, as well as the brain atrophy. Esculentoside A (EsA), a neuroprotective saponin, is isolated from Phytolacca esculenta and shows potent health-promoting effects in a variety of experimental models. However, there are minimal reports on the effects of EsA on triple transgenic AD mice.

PURPOSE

The current research aimed at investigating the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of EsA on the mitigation of cognitive deficits and pathology in triple transgenic AD mice.

METHODS

Triple transgenic AD mice (3 × Tg-AD) of 8 months old received intraperitoneal treatment of 5 or 10 mg/kg EsA for 8 consecutive weeks. Morris water maze test and open field test were made to evaluate the cognitive function and degree of anxiety of the mice. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry analysis was performed to characterize and to quantify EsA in the blood and brain of mice. Immunofluorescence assay and Western blot were adopted to measure the levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and key proteins in Aβ pathology, ER stress- and apoptosis-associated pathways. The combination of EsA with PPARγ were theoretically calculated by molecular docking programs and experimentally confirmed by the bio-layer interferometry technology.

RESULTS

Supplemental EsA could improve the cognitive deficits of 3 × Tg-AD mice. EsA penetrated the brain-blood barrier to exert a strong effect on AD mice, evidenced as decreasing Aβ generation, reducing the degrees of oxidative and ER stress, and mitigating neuronal apoptosis through the increase of PPARγ expression. In the culture of primary neurons, addition of PPARγ inhibitor GW9662 eliminated the effects of EsA on AD pathologies. Direct combination of EsA with PPARγ were demonstrated by molecular docking programs and bio-layer interferometry technology.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, these outcomes revealed that EsA could penetrate the brain-blood barrier to exert a strong effect on ameliorating cognitive deficits in 3 × Tg-AD mice and exert neuroprotective effects toward AD pathology via PPARγ-dependent mechanism.

New Aspects of Corpus Luteum Regulation in Physiological and Pathological Conditions: Involvement of Adipokines and Neuropeptides

The corpus luteum is a small gland of great importance because its proper functioning determines not only the appropriate course of the estrous/menstrual cycle and embryo implantation, but also the subsequent maintenance of pregnancy. Among the well-known regulators of luteal tissue functions, increasing attention is focused on the role of neuropeptides and adipose tissue hormones-adipokines. Growing evidence points to the expression of these factors in the corpus luteum of women and different animal species, and their involvement in corpus luteum formation, endocrine function, angiogenesis, cells proliferation, apoptosis, and finally, regression. In the present review, we summarize the current knowledge about the expression and role of adipokines, such as adiponectin, leptin, apelin, vaspin, visfatin, chemerin, and neuropeptides like ghrelin, orexins, kisspeptin, and phoenixin in the physiological regulation of the corpus luteum function, as well as their potential involvement in pathologies affecting the luteal cells that disrupt the estrous cycle.

Regulatory effects of Trichinella spiralis and a serine protease inhibitor on the endoplasmic reticulum stress response of intestinal epithelial cells

The accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum can cause an endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) response. If ERS continues or cannot be alleviated, it will cause the production of proapoptotic factors and eventually lead to apoptosis. Therefore, this study mainly explored whether Trichinella spiralis Kazal-type serine protease inhibitor (TsKaSPI) contributed to the invasion of intestinal epithelial cells during the infectious stage of T. spiralis by regulating ERS. First, in the T. spiralis infection model, H&E staining was used to analyse the damage to jejunum tissue, a TUNEL assay was used to examine cell apoptosis, and the expression of ERS-related and apoptosis-related molecules was also measured. The results showed that ERS occurred during the intestinal phase of T. spiralis infection, while remission began during the cyclic phase. Then, we selected TsKaSPI, one of the important components of T. spiralis ES antigens, for in vitro experiments. The results showed that TsKaSPI could induce apoptosis in a porcine small intestinal epithelial cell line (IPEC cells) by activating ERS and promote activation of the NF-κB signalling pathway. Inhibition experiments confirmed that the occurrence of ERS was accompanied by the activation of NF-κB, and the two processes regulated each other. Finally, we conducted in vivo experiments and administered TsKaSPI to mice. The results confirmed that TsKaSPI could activate ERS and lead to apoptosis in intestinal epithelial cells. In conclusion, T. spiralis infection and TsKaSPI can promote cell apoptosis by activating the ERS response in intestinal epithelial cells and activate the NF-κB signalling pathway to promote the occurrence and development of inflammation.

Glucose-regulated protein 78 modulates cell growth, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and oxidative stress in the hyperplastic prostate

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a chronic condition which mainly affects elderly males. Existing scientific evidences have not completely revealed the pathogenesis of BPH. Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) is a member of the heat shock protein 70 superfamily, which serves as an important regulator in many diseases. This study aims at elucidating the role of GRP78 in the BPH process. Human prostate tissues, cultured human prostate cell lines (BPH-1 and WPMY-1) and clinical data from BPH patients were utilized. The expression and localization of GRP78 were determined with quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR), Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. GRP78 knockdown and overexpression cell models were created with GRP78 siRNA and GRP78 plasmid transfection. With these models, cell viability, apoptosis rate, as well as marker levels for epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and oxidative stress (OS) were detected by CCK8 assay, flow cytometry analysis and Western blotting respectively. AKT/mTOR and MAPK/ERK pathways were also evaluated. Results showed GRP78 was localized in the epithelium and stroma of the prostate, with higher expression in BPH tissues. There was no significant difference in GRP78 expression between BPH-1 and WPMY-1 cell lines. In addition, GRP78 knockdown (KD) slowed cell growth and induced apoptosis, without effects on the cell cycle stage of both cell lines. Lack of GRP78 affected expression levels of markers for EMT and OS. Consistently, overexpression of GRP78 completely reversed all effects of knocking down GRP78. We further found that GRP78 modulated cell growth and OS via AKT/mTOR signaling, rather than the MAPK/ERK pathway. Overall, our novel data demonstrates that GRP78 plays a significant role in the development of BPH and suggests that GRP78 might be rediscovered as a new target for treatment of BPH.

Zeaxanthin Attenuates the Vicious Circle Between Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Tau Phosphorylation: Involvement of GSK-3β Activation

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) characterized by neurofibrillary tangles caused by hyperphosphorylated tau is the most common cause of dementia. Zeaxanthin (Zea), derived from fruits and vegetables, may reduce the risk of AD. Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) might cause memory impairment in AD.

OBJECTIVE

Here, we studied protective role of Zea on the relationship among ERS, activity of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β, tau phosphorylated kinase), and p-Tau (Ser 396 and Thr 231).

METHODS

The results were obtained in non-RA and RA group by using different treatment, such as 9-cis-retinoic acid (RA), TM (ERS inducer), Zea, 4-PBA (ERS inhibitor), and SB216763 (GSK-3β inhibitor). The methods included flow cytometry and MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] for the detections of cell cycle and cell viability and western blot as a third measure of proteins in relation to ERS and tau phosphorylation. We have collected and analyzed all the data that suggested application of drugs for the treatment in non-RA and RA group.

RESULTS

Zea displays its protection on TM-induced cell injury, upregulation of GRP78 expression, and change of GSK-3β activity and tau phosphorylation when 4-PBA and SB216763 interfere with the process.

CONCLUSION

These studies indicated that Zea is in vicious circle in ERS, GSK-3β, and tau phosphorylation, and further reflect its potential value in AD.

Heat Shock Factors in Protein Quality Control and Spermatogenesis

Proper regulation of cellular protein quality control is crucial for cellular health. It appears that the protein quality control machinery is subjected to distinct regulation in different cellular contexts such as in somatic cells and in germ cells. Heat shock factors (HSFs) play critical role in the control of quality of cellular proteins through controlling expression of many genes encoding different proteins including those for inducible protein chaperones. Mammalian cells exert distinct mechanism of cellular functions through maintenance of tissue-specific HSFs. Here, we have discussed different HSFs and their functions including those during spermatogenesis. We have also discussed the different heat shock proteins induced by the HSFs and their activities in those contexts. We have also identified several small molecule activators and inhibitors of HSFs from different sources reported so far.

Bis(ethylmaltolato)oxidovanadium (IV) alleviates neuronal apoptosis through regulating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ in a triple transgenic animal model of Alzheimer's disease

Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress) plays a critical role in neuronal apoptosis along with the aggravation of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that is involved in regulating ER stress in Alzheimer's disease (AD), therefore, this protein could be a promising therapeutic target for AD. Vanadium compounds, such as vanadyl acetylacetonate, sodium metavanadate and bis(maltolato)oxovanadium, are well-known as puissant PPARγ modulators. Thus, we are curious whether bis(ethylmaltolato)oxidovanadium (IV) (BEOV) can ameliorate ER stress and subsequent neuronal apoptosis by regulating PPARγ in AD models. To this end, we determined the effect of BEOV on behavioral performance, ER stress and neuronal apoptosis in the triple transgenic mouse AD model (3×Tg-AD). Our results showed that BEOV improved cognitive abilities and reduced the ER stress- and apoptosis-associated proteins in the brains of 3×Tg-AD mice. In vitro administration of BEOV in primary hippocampal neurons and N2asw cells achieved similar results in repressing ER stress. In addition, cotreatment with GW9662 (an antagonist of PPARγ) effectively blocked these neuroprotective effects of BEOV, which provided strong evidence that PPARγ-dependent signaling plays a key role in protecting against ER stress and neuronal apoptosis in AD. In conclusion, our data demonstrated that BEOV alleviated neuronal apoptosis triggered by ER stress by regulating PPARγ in a 3×Tg-AD model.

Review: Vaspin (SERPINA12) Expression and Function in Endocrine Cells

Proper functioning of the body depends on hormonal homeostasis. White adipose tissue is now known as an endocrine organ due to the secretion of multiple molecules called adipokines. These proteins exert direct effects on whole body functions, including lipid metabolism, angiogenesis, inflammation, and reproduction, whereas changes in their level are linked with pathological events, such as infertility, diabetes, and increased food intake. Vaspin-visceral adipose tissue-derived serine protease inhibitor, or SERPINA12 according to serpin nomenclature, is an adipokine discovered in 2005 that is connected to the development of insulin resistance, obesity, and inflammation. A significantly higher amount of vaspin was observed in obese patients. The objective of this review was to summarize the latest findings about vaspin expression and action in endocrine tissues, such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adipose tissue, thyroid, ovary, placenta, and testis, as well as discuss the link between vaspin and pathologies connected with hormonal imbalance.

Heat Shock Proteins and Their Role in Pregnancy: Redefining the Function of "Old Rum in a New Bottle"

Pregnancy in humans is a multi-step complex physiological process comprising three discrete events, decidualization, implantation and placentation. Its overall success depends on the incremental advantage that each of the preceding stages passes on to the next. The success of these synchronized sequels of events is an outcome of timely coordination between them. The pregnancy events are coordinated and governed primarily by the ovarian steroid hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which are essentially ligand-activated transcription factors. It's well known that intercellular signaling of steroid hormones engages a plethora of adapter proteins that participate in executing the biological functions. This involves binding of the hormone receptor complex to the DNA response elements in a sequence specific manner. Working with Drosophila melanogaster, the heat shock proteins (HSPs) were originally described by Ferruccio Ritossa back in the early 1960s. Over the years, there has been considerable advancement of our understanding of these conserved families of proteins, particularly in pregnancy. Accumulating evidence suggests that endometrial and uterine cells have an abundance of HSP27, HSP60, HSP70 and HSP90, implying their possible involvement during the pregnancy process. HSPs have been found to be associated with decidualization, implantation and placentation, with their dysregulation associated with implantation failure, pregnancy loss and other feto-maternal complications. Furthermore, HSP is also associated with stress response, specifically in modulating the ER stress, a critical determinant for reproductive success. Recent advances suggest a therapeutic role of HSPs proteins in improving the pregnancy outcome. In this review, we summarized our latest understanding of the role of different members of the HSP families during pregnancy and associated complications based on experimental and clinical evidences, thereby redefining and exploring their novel function with new perspective, beyond their prototype role as molecular chaperones.

Boron Attenuates Heat Stress-Induced Apoptosis by Inhibiting Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Mouse Granulosa Cells

Heat stress-induced apoptosis in granulosa cells is mediated by multiple apoptotic signaling pathways, including endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Boron is a naturally occurring trace element with several cytoprotective properties. Nonetheless, the molecular mechanisms involved in the protective functions of boron in granulosa cells undergoing apoptosis caused by heat stress (HS) remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of boric acid, a predominant chemical form of boron, in HS-induced apoptotic damage in mouse granulosa cells (mGCs) and explored the underlying mechanisms. We found that HS treatment suppressed cell viability; increased the apoptotic rate of cells; potentiated the activity of caspase-3, a key player in the caspase-mediated apoptotic signaling pathway; and activated ER stress markers, including glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) homologous protein (CHOP) in mGCs. However, boric acid treatment effectively alleviated the effects of both HS-induced and thapsigargin (an ER stress agonist)-induced apoptosis, such as the enhanced activity of caspase-3 and increase in GRP78 and CHOP expression. Moreover, treatment with 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA), an ER stress antagonist, significantly attenuated these HS-induced adverse effects in mGCs. In addition, boric acid supplementation in the culture medium significantly restored the decreased estradiol levels in heat-treated mGCs. The administration of boric acid to female mice previously exposed to hyperthermal conditions effectively restored the levels of serum estradiol in vivo. Collectively, these findings suggest that HS induces apoptosis in mGCs via ER stress pathways and that boron has a protective effect against these adverse effects. This study provides novel insights into the benefits of using boron against heat-induced apoptosis.

VIP conditions human endometrial receptivity by privileging endoplasmic reticulum stress through ATF6α pathway

Endometrial stromal cells undergo endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and unfolded protein response (UPR) during the decidualization linked with the inflammation and angiogenesis processes. Considering VIP (vasoactive intestinal peptide) induces the decidualization program, we studied whether modulates the ER/UPR pathways to condition both processes for embryo implantation. When Human Endometrial Stromal Cell line (HESC) were decidualized by VIP we observed an increased expression of ATF6α, an ER stress-sensor, and UPR markers, associated with an increase in IL-1β production. Moreover, AEBSF (ATF6α -inhibitor pathway) prevented this effect and decreased the expansion index in the in vitro model of implantation. VIP-decidualized cells also favor angiogenesis accompanied by a strong downregulation in thrombospondin-1. Finally, ATF6α, VIP and VPAC2-receptor expression were reduced in endometrial biopsies from women with recurrent implantation failures in comparison with fertile. In conclusion, VIP privileged ATF6α-pathway associated with a sterile inflammatory response and angiogenesis that might condition endometrial receptivity.

Novel Insights on the Corpus Luteum Function: Role of Vaspin on Porcine Luteal Cell Angiogenesis, Proliferation and Apoptosis by Activation of GRP78 Receptor and MAP3/1 Kinase Pathways

Formation and limited lifespan of corpus luteum (CL) are important for proper ovarian periodicity and fertility. Failed vascularization, imbalance between proliferation and apoptosis leads to luteal phase deficiency and infertility. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of vaspin on angiogenesis, apoptosis and proliferation as well as the involvement of 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein receptor (GRP78) and mitogen-activated kinase (MAP3/1) in these processes. Porcine luteal cells were incubated with vaspin (0.1-10 ng/mL) for 24 h to 72 h and then mRNA and protein expression of angiogenesis: vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), angiopoietin 1 (ANGPT1), VEGFA receptors (VEGFR1, VEGFR2), apoptosis: caspase 3, bcl-2-like protein 4 (BAX), B-cell lymphoma (BCL2), and proliferation: proliferating cells nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclin A factors as well as secretion of VEGFA, FGF2, ANGT1 were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunoblotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Moreover, apoptosis was assessed by caspase activity using the Caspase-Glo 3/7 assay, while proliferation was by alamarBlue. We found that vaspin enhanced luteal cell angiogenesis, proliferation, and significantly decreased apoptosis. Additionally, using GRP78 siRNA and the pharmacological inhibitor of MAP3/1 (PD98059), we observed that the effect of vaspin was reversed to the control level in all investigated processes. Taken together, our results suggest that vaspin is a new regulator of female fertility by direct regulation of CL formation and maintenance of luteal cell function.

Interaction of Estradiol and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in the Development of Esophageal Carcinoma

Gender differences in esophageal cancer patients indicate that estradiol may have antitumor effects on esophageal cancer. The initiation of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) can induce apoptosis in esophageal cancer cells. However, it is still unknown whether estradiol inhibits the development of esophageal cancer by activating ERS pathway. In this study, the gender difference in the development of esophageal cancer was observed by analyzing clinical data and the experimental tumor xenografts in mice. Meanwhile, we investigated the mechanism of ERS in estradiol-mediated inhibition of esophageal cancer using esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell line EC109. The proportion of male patients with esophageal cancer was significantly higher than female patients. Meanwhile, male patients were prone to have adventitial invasion. The weight of transplanted tumors in female mice was significantly smaller than that in male mice. In vitro experiments showed estradiol inhibits the viability and migration of EC109 cells by increasing the expression of ERS-related proteins, whereas ERS inhibitor 4-PBA abolished the effects of estradiol. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that sex difference exists in the occurrence of esophageal cancer. Estradiol can inhibit the viability and migration of esophageal cancer cells through the activation of ERS, providing a novel insight for esophageal cancer development, treatment, and prevention.

Crocin Improves Cognitive Behavior in Rats with Alzheimer's Disease by Regulating Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Apoptosis

AIM

To investigate the effect of crocin on the learning and memory acquisition of AD rats and its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

A total of 48 healthy male SD rats were randomly divided into control group, AD model group, resveratrol group, and crocin group, with 12 rats per group. AD model was established by injecting Aβ 25-35 to the lateral ventricle of rats, and thereafter the rats were administrated with resveratrol (40 mg/kg), crocin (40 mg/kg), or PBS daily for 14 days. Y-maze test and sucrose preference test were used to detect the learning and memory acquisition of rats. Neuronal apoptosis was detected by TUNEL staining and Western blot for apoptosis-related proteins Bax, Bcl-2, and Caspase-3. Immunofluorescence staining and Western blot tests were used to detect the expression of glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) in hippocampal CA1 region (Hippo) and prefrontal cortical neurons (PFC).

RESULTS

The learning and memory abilities of AD rats were significantly decreased, which was significantly rescued by resveratrol and crocin. The apoptotic cell number of Hippo and PFC neurons in AD model group was significantly higher than that in control group (P<0.01), while resveratrol and crocin significantly decreased the apoptotic cell number in AD group (P<0.01). Compared with the control group, the expression of Bcl2 in PFC and hippo of AD model group was significantly decreased (P<0.01), while those of Bax, Caspase3, GRP78, and CHOP were significantly increased (P<0.01). Resveratrol and crocin could significantly reverse the expression of these proteins in AD rats (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Crocin can improve the learning and memory ability of AD rats possibly by reducing endoplasmic reticulum stress and neuronal apoptosis.

Artocarpin induces cell apoptosis in human osteosarcoma cells through endoplasmic reticulum stress and reactive oxygen species

Osteosarcoma is a malignant primary bone tumor that responds poorly to both chemotherapy and radiation therapy. However, because of side effects and drug resistance in chemotherapy and the insufficiency of an effective adjuvant therapy for osteosarcoma, it is necessary to research novel treatments. This study was the first to investigate the anticancer effects of the flavonoid derivative artocarpin in osteosarcoma. Artocarpin induced cell apoptosis in three human osteosarcoma cell lines-U2OS, MG63, and HOS. Artocarpin was also associated with increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Mitochondrial dysfunction was followed by the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and accompanied by decreased antiapoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL and increased proapoptotic protein Bak and Bax. Artocarpin triggered endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, as indicated by changes in cytosol calcium levels and increased glucose-regulated protein 78 and 94 expressions, and also increased calpains expression and activity. Animal studies revealed a dramatic 40% reduction in tumor volume after 18 days of treatment. This study demonstrated a novel anticancer activity of artocarpin against human osteosarcoma cells and in murine tumor models. In summary, artocarpin significantly induced cell apoptosis through ROS, ER stress, mitochondria, and the caspase pathway, and may thus be a novel anticancer treatment for osteosarcoma.