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Braarud PØ. Measuring cognitive workload in the nuclear control room: a review. ERGONOMICS 2024; 67:849-865. [PMID: 38279638 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2024.2302381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Despite the substantial literature and human factors guidance, evaluators report challenges in selecting cognitive workload measures for the evaluation of complex human-technology systems. A review of 32 articles found that self-report measures and secondary tasks were systematically sensitive to human-system interface conditions and correlated with physiological measures. Therefore, including a self-report measure of cognitive workload is recommended when evaluating human-system interfaces. Physiological measures were mainly used in method studies, and future research must demonstrate the utility of these measures for human-system evaluation in complex work settings. However, indexes of physiological measures showed promise for cognitive workload assessment. The review revealed a limited focus on the measurement of excessive cognitive workload, although this is a key topic in nuclear process control. To support human-system evaluation of adequate cognitive workload, future research on behavioural measures may be useful in the identification and analysis of underload and overload.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Øivind Braarud
- Institute for Energy Technology/OECD, NEA Halden Human Technology-Organisation (HTO) Project, Halden, Norway
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Pütz S, Mertens A, Chuang L, Nitsch V. Physiological measures of operators' mental state in supervisory process control tasks: a scoping review. ERGONOMICS 2024; 67:801-830. [PMID: 38031407 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2023.2289858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Physiological measures are often used to assess the mental state of human operators in supervisory process control tasks. However, the diversity of research approaches creates a heterogeneous landscape of empirical evidence. To map existing evidence and provide guidance to researchers and practitioners, this paper systematically reviews 109 empirical studies that report relationships between peripheral nervous system measures and mental state dimensions (e.g. mental workload, mental fatigue, stress, and vigilance) of interest. Ocular and electrocardiac measures were the most prominent measures across application fields. Most studies sought to validate such measures for reliable assessments of cognitive task demands and time on task, with measures of pupil size receiving the most empirical support. In comparison, less research examined the utility of physiological measures in predicting human task performance. This approach is discussed as an opportunity to focus on operators' individual response to cognitive task demands and to advance the state of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Pütz
- Institute of Industrial Engineering and Ergonomics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Alexander Mertens
- Institute of Industrial Engineering and Ergonomics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Lewis Chuang
- Professorship for Humans and Technology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Verena Nitsch
- Institute of Industrial Engineering and Ergonomics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Communication, Information Processing and Ergonomics FKIE, Aachen, Germany
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Longo L, Wickens CD, Hancock PA, Hancock GM. Human Mental Workload: A Survey and a Novel Inclusive Definition. Front Psychol 2022; 13:883321. [PMID: 35719509 PMCID: PMC9201728 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Human mental workload is arguably the most invoked multidimensional construct in Human Factors and Ergonomics, getting momentum also in Neuroscience and Neuroergonomics. Uncertainties exist in its characterization, motivating the design and development of computational models, thus recently and actively receiving support from the discipline of Computer Science. However, its role in human performance prediction is assured. This work is aimed at providing a synthesis of the current state of the art in human mental workload assessment through considerations, definitions, measurement techniques as well as applications, Findings suggest that, despite an increasing number of associated research works, a single, reliable and generally applicable framework for mental workload research does not yet appear fully established. One reason for this gap is the existence of a wide swath of operational definitions, built upon different theoretical assumptions which are rarely examined collectively. A second reason is that the three main classes of measures, which are self-report, task performance, and physiological indices, have been used in isolation or in pairs, but more rarely in conjunction all together. Multiple definitions complement each another and we propose a novel inclusive definition of mental workload to support the next generation of empirical-based research. Similarly, by comprehensively employing physiological, task-performance, and self-report measures, more robust assessments of mental workload can be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Longo
- Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Load Lab, The Applied Intelligence Research Centre, School of Computer Science, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Christoper D Wickens
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Peter A Hancock
- Department of Psychology, Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States
| | - Gabriela M Hancock
- Department of Psychology, California State University, Long Beach, CA, United States
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Braarud PØ, Bodal T, Hulsund JE, Louka MN, Nihlwing C, Nystad E, Svengren H, Wingstedt E. An Investigation of Speech Features, Plant System Alarms, and Operator-System Interaction for the Classification of Operator Cognitive Workload During Dynamic Work. HUMAN FACTORS 2021; 63:736-756. [PMID: 33054415 DOI: 10.1177/0018720820961730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate speech features, human-machine alarms, and operator-system interaction for the estimation of cognitive workload in full-scale realistic simulated scenarios. BACKGROUND Theories and models of cognitive workload are critical for the design and evaluation of human-machine systems. Unfortunately, there are very few nonintrusive cognitive workload measures available for realistic dynamic human-machine interaction. METHOD The study was conducted in a full-scope control room research simulator of an advanced nuclear reactor. Six crews, each consisting of three operators, participated in 12 scenarios. The operators rated their workload every second minute. Machine learning algorithms were trained to estimate operators' workload based on crew communication, operator-system interaction, and system alarms. RESULTS Random Forest (RF) utilizing speech and system features achieved an accuracy of 67% on test data. Utilizing speech features only, the accuracy achieved was 63%. The most important speech features were pitch, amplitude, and articulation rate. A 61% accuracy was achieved when alarms and operator-system interaction features were used. The most important features were the number of alarms and amount of operator-system interaction. Accuracy for algorithms trained for each operator ranged from 39% to 98%, with an average of 72%. For a majority of analyses performed, RF and extreme gradient boosting (XGB) outperformed other algorithms. CONCLUSION The results demonstrate that the features investigated and machine learning models developed provide a potential for the dynamic nonintrusive measurement of cognitive workload. APPLICATION The approach presented can be developed for nonintrusive workload measurement in real-world human-machine applications, simulator-based training, and research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Ø Braarud
- 11312 Institute for Energy Technology, Halden, Norway
| | - Terje Bodal
- 11312 Institute for Energy Technology, Halden, Norway
| | | | | | | | - Espen Nystad
- 11312 Institute for Energy Technology, Halden, Norway
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Hancock PA. Months of monotony – moments of mayhem: Planning for the human role in a transitioning world of work. THEORETICAL ISSUES IN ERGONOMICS SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/1463922x.2020.1753260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P. A. Hancock
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Reinerman L, Mercado J, Szalma JL, Hancock PA. Understanding individualistic response patterns when assessing expert operators on nuclear power plant control tasks. ERGONOMICS 2020; 63:440-460. [PMID: 31623536 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2019.1677946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated the performance of three highly practiced participants on three task types that comprised a simulated nuclear power plant control operation. Multiple subjective, physiological, and objective performance measures were collected on these three highly-practiced individuals. Results indicated ceiling effects in terms of performance accuracy, yet each individual adopted a unique response strategy across the respective sub-tasks. Their maximised accuracy was achieved at the expense of longer response times across differing sub-tasks. The measures which proved diagnostic and predictive of performance capacity were explored. The current conclusion presents us with an invidious problem in that performance and workload associations, insensitivities, and dissociations may be unique to each individual operator, and may well depend also upon the overall task in context. Such findings push our science away from seeking nomothetic assertions and toward individuated concerns. In consequence, the age of the idiographic may well be upon us. Practitioner summary: The importance and relevance of nuclear power control is self-evident. Concerns here have centred around the safety of the technology and its operators. Our work informs practitioners in this industry, and in Ergonomics in general, of the response of highly trained individuals in these safety-critical, operational domains. We show that even experts engage in personal and individual strategies, an observation critical to the assessment of this specific workplace, and potentially all others. Abbreviations: NPP: nuclear power plant; ROs: reactor operators; MCR: main control room; LOA: levels of automation; EOP: emergency operating procedure; OP: operating procedures; ISA: instantaneous self-assessment; DSSQ: Dundee stres state questionnaire.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Reinerman
- Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - J Mercado
- Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - J L Szalma
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - P A Hancock
- Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Hancock PA, Matthews G. Workload and Performance: Associations, Insensitivities, and Dissociations. HUMAN FACTORS 2019; 61:374-392. [PMID: 30521400 DOI: 10.1177/0018720818809590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to distill and define those influences under which change in objective performance level and the linked cognitive workload reflections of subjective experience and physiological variation either associate, dissociate, or are insensitive, one to another. BACKGROUND Human factors/ergonomics frequently employs users' self-reports of their own conscious experience, as well as their physiological reactivity, to augment the understanding of changing performance capacity. Under some circumstances, these latter workload responses are the only available assessment information to hand. How such perceptions and physiological responses match, fail to match, or are insensitive to the change in primary-task performance can prove critical to operational success. The reasons underlying these associations, dissociations, and insensitivities are central to the success of future effective human-machine interaction. METHOD Using extant research on the relations between differing methods of workload assessment, factors influencing their association, dissociation, and insensitivity are identified. RESULTS Dissociations and insensitivities occur more frequently than extant explanatory theories imply. Methodological and conceptual reasons for these patterns of incongruity are identified and evaluated. APPLICATION We often seek convergence of results in order to provide coherent explanations as bases for future prediction and practical design implementation. Identifying and understanding the causes as to why different reflections of workload diverge can help practitioners toward operational success.
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Matthews G, De Winter J, Hancock PA. What do subjective workload scales really measure? Operational and representational solutions to divergence of workload measures. THEORETICAL ISSUES IN ERGONOMICS SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/1463922x.2018.1547459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Matthews
- Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Joost De Winter
- Department of BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - P. A. Hancock
- Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE This work assesses the efficacy of the "prevalence effect" as a form of cyberattack in human-automation teaming, using an email task. BACKGROUND Under the prevalence effect, rare signals are more difficult to detect, even when taking into account their proportionally low occurrence. This decline represents diminished human capability to both detect and respond. As signal probability (SP) approaches zero, accuracy exhibits logarithmic decay. Cybersecurity, a context in which the environment is entirely artificial, provides an opportunity to manufacture conditions enhancing or degrading human performance, such as prevalence effects. Email cybersecurity prevalence effects have not previously been demonstrated, nor intentionally manipulated. METHOD The Email Testbed (ET) provides a simulation of a clerical email work involving messages containing sensitive personal information. Using the ET, participants were presented with 300 email interactions and received cyberattacks at rates of either 1%, 5%, or 20%. RESULTS Results demonstrated the existence and power of prevalence effects in email cybersecurity. Attacks delivered at a rate of 1% were significantly more likely to succeed, and the overall pattern of accuracy across declining SP exhibited logarithmic decay. APPLICATION These findings suggest a "prevalence paradox" within human-machine teams. As automation reduces attack SP, the human operator becomes increasingly likely to fail in detecting and reporting attacks that remain. In the cyber realm, the potential to artificially inflict this state on adversaries, hacking the human operator rather than algorithmic defense, is considered. Specific and general information security design countermeasures are offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben D Sawyer
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
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