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Schendel V, Müller CHG, Kenning M, Maxwell M, Jenner RA, Undheim EAB, Sombke A. The venom and telopodal defence systems of the centipede Lithobius forficatus are functionally convergent serial homologues. BMC Biol 2024; 22:135. [PMID: 38867210 PMCID: PMC11170834 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-024-01925-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evolution of novelty is a central theme in evolutionary biology, yet studying the origins of traits with an apparently discontinuous origin remains a major challenge. Venom systems are a well-suited model for the study of this phenomenon because they capture several aspects of novelty across multiple levels of biological complexity. However, while there is some knowledge on the evolution of individual toxins, not much is known about the evolution of venom systems as a whole. One way of shedding light on the evolution of new traits is to investigate less specialised serial homologues, i.e. repeated traits in an organism that share a developmental origin. This approach can be particularly informative in animals with repetitive body segments, such as centipedes. RESULTS Here, we investigate morphological and biochemical aspects of the defensive telopodal glandular organs borne on the posterior legs of venomous stone centipedes (Lithobiomorpha), using a multimethod approach, including behavioural observations, comparative morphology, proteomics, comparative transcriptomics and molecular phylogenetics. We show that the anterior venom system and posterior telopodal defence system are functionally convergent serial homologues, where one (telopodal defence) represents a model for the putative early evolutionary state of the other (venom). Venom glands and telopodal glandular organs appear to have evolved from the same type of epidermal gland (four-cell recto-canal type) and while the telopodal defensive secretion shares a great degree of compositional overlap with centipede venoms in general, these similarities arose predominantly through convergent recruitment of distantly related toxin-like components. Both systems are composed of elements predisposed to functional innovation across levels of biological complexity that range from proteins to glands, demonstrating clear parallels between molecular and morphological traits in the properties that facilitate the evolution of novelty. CONCLUSIONS The evolution of the lithobiomorph telopodal defence system provides indirect empirical support for the plausibility of the hypothesised evolutionary origin of the centipede venom system, which occurred through functional innovation and gradual specialisation of existing epidermal glands. Our results thus exemplify how continuous transformation and functional innovation can drive the apparent discontinuous emergence of novelties on higher levels of biological complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Schendel
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Carsten H G Müller
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, Greifswald, 17489, Germany
| | - Matthes Kenning
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, Greifswald, 17489, Germany
| | - Michael Maxwell
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | | | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway.
| | - Andy Sombke
- Centre for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Cell and Developmental Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstrasse 17, Vienna, 1090, Austria.
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Austria.
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Kelly MBJ, Khan MK, Wierucka K, Jones BR, Shofner R, Derkarabetian S, Wolff JO. Dynamic evolution of locomotor performance independent of changes in extended phenotype use in spiders. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20232035. [PMID: 37876190 PMCID: PMC10598421 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Many animals use self-built structures (extended phenotypes) to enhance body functions, such as thermoregulation, prey capture or defence. Yet, it is unclear whether the evolution of animal constructions supplements or substitutes body functions-with disparate feedbacks on trait evolution. Here, using brown spiders (Araneae: marronoid clade), we explored if the evolutionary loss and gain of silken webs as extended prey capture devices correlates with alterations in traits known to play an important role in predatory strikes-locomotor performance (sprint speed) and leg spination (expression of capture spines on front legs). We found that in this group high locomotor performance, with running speeds of over 100 body lengths per second, evolved repeatedly-both in web-building and cursorial spiders. There was no correlation with running speed, and leg spination only poorly correlated, relative to the use of extended phenotypes, indicating that web use does not reduce selective pressures on body functions involved in prey capture and defence per se. Consequently, extended prey capture devices serve as supplements rather than substitutions to body traits and may only be beneficial in conjunction with certain life-history traits, possibly explaining the rare evolution and repeated loss of trapping strategies in predatory animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B. J. Kelly
- Evolutionary Biomechanics, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Md Kawsar Khan
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 1-3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kaja Wierucka
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
- Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center - Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Braxton R. Jones
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Ryan Shofner
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences E26, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Shahan Derkarabetian
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Jonas O. Wolff
- Evolutionary Biomechanics, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
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Nanoscale Material Heterogeneity of Glowworm Capture Threads Revealed by AFM. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26123500. [PMID: 34201363 PMCID: PMC8226719 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26123500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Adhesive materials used by many arthropods for biological functions incorporate sticky substances and a supporting material that operate synergistically by exploiting substrate attachment and energy dissipation. While there has been much focus on the composition and properties of the sticky glues of these bio-composites, less attention has been given to the materials that support them. In particular, as these materials are primarily responsible for dissipation during adhesive pull-off, little is known of the structures that give rise to functionality, especially at the nano-scale. In this study we used tapping mode atomic force microscopy (TM-AFM) to analyze unstretched and stretched glowworm (Arachnocampa tasmaniensis) capture threads and revealed nano-scale features corresponding to variation in surface structure and elastic modulus near the surface of the silk. Phase images demonstrated a high resolution of viscoelastic variation and revealed mostly globular and elongated features in the material. Increased vertical orientation of 11–15 nm wide fibrillar features was observed in stretched threads. Fast Fourier transform analysis of phase images confirmed these results. Relative viscoelastic properties were also highly variable at inter- and intra-individual levels. Results of this study demonstrate the practical usefulness of TM-AFM, especially phase angle imaging, in investigating the nano-scale structures that give rise to macro-scale function of soft and highly heterogeneous materials of both natural and synthetic origins.
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Sombke A, Müller CHG. When SEM becomes a deceptive tool of analysis: the unexpected discovery of epidermal glands with stalked ducts on the ultimate legs of geophilomorph centipedes. Front Zool 2021; 18:17. [PMID: 33879192 PMCID: PMC8056527 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-021-00402-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The jointed appendage is a key novelty in arthropod evolution and arthropod legs are known to vary enormously in relation to function. Among centipedes, the ultimate legs always are distinctly different from locomotory legs, and different centipede taxa evolved different structural and functional modifications. In Geophilomorpha (soil centipedes), ultimate legs do not participate in locomotion and were interpret to serve a sensory function. They can be sexually dimorphic and in some species, male ultimate legs notably appear "hairy". It can be assumed that the high abundance of sensilla indicates a pronounced sensory function. This study seeks for assessing the sensory diversity, however, documents the surprising and unique case of an extensive glandular epithelium in the ultimate legs of three phylogenetically distant species. RESULTS The tightly aggregated epidermal glands with stalked ducts - mistakenly thought to be sensilla - were scrutinized using a multimodal microscopic approach comprising histology as well as scanning and transmission electron microscopy in Haplophilus subterraneus. Hence, this is the first detailed account on centipede ultimate legs demonstrating an evolutionary transformation into a "secretory leg". Additionally, we investigated sensory structures as well as anatomical features using microCT analysis. Contrary to its nomination as a tarsus, tarsus 1 possesses intrinsic musculature, which is an indication that this podomere might be a derivate of the tibia. DISCUSSION The presence and identity of ultimate leg associated epidermal glands with stalked ducts is a new discovery for myriapods. A pronounced secretory as well as moderate sensory function in Haplophilus subterraneus can be concluded. The set of characters will improve future taxonomic studies, to test the hypotheses whether the presence of these specialized glands is a common feature in Geophilomorpha, and that tarsus 1 may be a derivate of the tibia. As the number of epidermal glands with stalked ducts is sexually dimorphic, their function might be connected to reproduction or a sex-specific defensive role. Our results, in particular the unexpected discovery of 'glandular hairs', may account for a striking example for how deceptive morphological descriptions of epidermal organs may be, if based on non-invasive techniques alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Sombke
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Carsten H. G. Müller
- University of Greifswald, Zoological Institute and Museum, General and Systematic Zoology, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
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Baer A, Horbelt N, Nijemeisland M, Garcia SJ, Fratzl P, Schmidt S, Mayer G, Harrington MJ. Shear-Induced β-Crystallite Unfolding in Condensed Phase Nanodroplets Promotes Fiber Formation in a Biological Adhesive. ACS NANO 2019; 13:4992-5001. [PMID: 30933471 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b00857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Natural materials provide an increasingly important role model for the development and processing of next-generation polymers. The velvet worm Euperipatoides rowelli hunts using a projectile, mechanoresponsive adhesive slime that rapidly and reversibly transitions into stiff glassy polymer fibers following shearing and drying. However, the molecular mechanism underlying this mechanoresponsive behavior is still unclear. Previous work showed the slime to be an emulsion of nanoscale charge-stabilized condensed droplets comprised primarily of large phosphorylated proteins, which under mechanical shear coalesce and self-organize into nano- and microfibrils that can be drawn into macroscopic fibers. Here, we utilize wide-angle X-ray diffraction and vibrational spectroscopy coupled with in situ shear deformation to explore the contribution of protein conformation and mechanical forces to the fiber formation process. Although previously believed to be unstructured, our findings indicate that the main phosphorylated protein component possesses a significant β-crystalline structure in the storage phase and that shear-induced partial unfolding of the protein is a key first step in the rapid self-organization of nanodroplets into fibers. The insights gained here have relevance for sustainable production of advanced polymeric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Baer
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology , University of Kassel , Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40 , D-34132 Kassel , Germany
| | - Nils Horbelt
- Department of Biomaterials , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Research Campus Golm, D-14424 Potsdam , Germany
| | - Marlies Nijemeisland
- Novel Aerospace Materials group, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering , Delft University of Technology , Kluyverweg 1 , 2629 HS Delft , The Netherlands
| | - Santiago J Garcia
- Novel Aerospace Materials group, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering , Delft University of Technology , Kluyverweg 1 , 2629 HS Delft , The Netherlands
| | - Peter Fratzl
- Department of Biomaterials , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Research Campus Golm, D-14424 Potsdam , Germany
| | - Stephan Schmidt
- Preparative Polymer Chemistry , Heinrich-Heine-Universität , Universitätsstraße 1 , D-40225 Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Georg Mayer
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology , University of Kassel , Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40 , D-34132 Kassel , Germany
| | - Matthew J Harrington
- Department of Biomaterials , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Research Campus Golm, D-14424 Potsdam , Germany
- Department of Chemistry , McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West , Montreal , Quebec H3A 0B8 , Canada
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Baer A, Schmidt S, Mayer G, Harrington MJ. Fibers on the Fly: Multiscale Mechanisms of Fiber Formation in the Capture Slime of Velvet Worms. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:1690-1699. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Many organisms have evolved a capacity to form biopolymeric fibers outside their bodies for functions such as defense, prey capture, attachment, and protection. In particular, the adhesive capture slime of onychophorans (velvet worms) is remarkable for its ability to rapidly form stiff fibers through mechanical drawing. Notably, fibers that are formed ex vivo from extracted slime can be dissolved in water and new fibers can be drawn from the solution, indicating that fiber formation is encoded in the biomolecules that comprise the slime. This review highlights recent findings on the biochemical and physicochemical principles guiding this circular process in the Australian onychophoran Euperipatoides rowelli. A multiscale cross-disciplinary approach utilizing techniques from biology, biochemistry, physical chemistry, and materials science has revealed that the slime is a concentrated emulsion of nanodroplets comprised primarily of proteins, stabilized via electrostatic interactions, possibly in a coacervate phase. Upon mechanical agitation, droplets coalesce, leading to spontaneous self-assembly and fibrillation of proteins—a completely reversible process. Recent investigations highlight the importance of subtle transitions in protein structure and charge balance. These findings have clear relevance for better understanding this adaptive prey capture behavior and providing inspiration toward sustainable polymer processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Baer
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, University of Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, Kassel, Germany
| | - Stephan Schmidt
- Institute of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Georg Mayer
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, University of Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, Kassel, Germany
| | - Matthew J Harrington
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Gould J, Valdez JW, Upton R. Adhesive defence mucus secretions in the red triangle slug (
Triboniophorus graeffei
) can incapacitate adult frogs. Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Gould
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences University of Newcastle Callaghan New South Wales Australia
| | - Jose W. Valdez
- Department of Bioscience ‐ Biodiversity and Conservation Aarhus University Rønde Denmark
| | - Rose Upton
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences University of Newcastle Callaghan New South Wales Australia
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