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Pardo A, Gomez-Florit M, Davidson MD, Öztürk-Öncel MÖ, Domingues RMA, Burdick JA, Gomes ME. Hierarchical Design of Tissue-Mimetic Fibrillar Hydrogel Scaffolds. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2303167. [PMID: 38400658 PMCID: PMC11209813 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202303167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Most tissues of the human body present hierarchical fibrillar extracellular matrices (ECMs) that have a strong influence over their physicochemical properties and biological behavior. Of great interest is the introduction of this fibrillar structure to hydrogels, particularly due to the water-rich composition, cytocompatibility, and tunable properties of this class of biomaterials. Here, the main bottom-up fabrication strategies for the design and production of hierarchical biomimetic fibrillar hydrogels and their most representative applications in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine are reviewed. For example, the controlled assembly/arrangement of peptides, polymeric micelles, cellulose nanoparticles (NPs), and magnetically responsive nanostructures, among others, into fibrillar hydrogels is discussed, as well as their potential use as fibrillar-like hydrogels (e.g., those from cellulose NPs) with key biofunctionalities such as electrical conductivity or remote stimulation. Finally, the major remaining barriers to the clinical translation of fibrillar hydrogels and potential future directions of research in this field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Pardo
- 3B’s Research Group I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine AvePark - Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia Zona Industrial da Gandra Barco, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal; ICVS/3B’s - PT Government Associate Laboratory Braga/Guimarães, Portugal; Colloids and Polymers Physics Group, Particle Physics Department, Materials Institute (iMATUS), and Health Research Institute (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Manuel Gomez-Florit
- Group of Cell Therapy and Tissue Engineering (TERCIT), Research Institute on Health Sciences (IUNICS), University of the Balearic Islands (UIB), Ctra. Valldemossa km 7.5, 07122 Palma, Spain
| | - Matthew D. Davidson
- BioFrontiers Institute and Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - M. Özgen Öztürk-Öncel
- 3B’s Research Group I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine AvePark - Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia Zona Industrial da Gandra Barco, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal; ICVS/3B’s - PT Government Associate Laboratory Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Rui M. A. Domingues
- 3B’s Research Group I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine AvePark - Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia Zona Industrial da Gandra Barco, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal; ICVS/3B’s - PT Government Associate Laboratory Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Jason A. Burdick
- BioFrontiers Institute and Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Manuela E. Gomes
- 3B’s Research Group I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine AvePark - Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia Zona Industrial da Gandra Barco, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal; ICVS/3B’s - PT Government Associate Laboratory Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
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2
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Fernández-Gómez P, Pérez de la Lastra Aranda C, Tosat-Bitrián C, Bueso de Barrio JA, Thompson S, Sot B, Salas G, Somoza Á, Espinosa A, Castellanos M, Palomo V. Nanomedical research and development in Spain: improving the treatment of diseases from the nanoscale. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1191327. [PMID: 37545884 PMCID: PMC10401050 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1191327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The new and unique possibilities that nanomaterials offer have greatly impacted biomedicine, from the treatment and diagnosis of diseases, to the specific and optimized delivery of therapeutic agents. Technological advances in the synthesis, characterization, standardization, and therapeutic performance of nanoparticles have enabled the approval of several nanomedicines and novel applications. Discoveries continue to rise exponentially in all disease areas, from cancer to neurodegenerative diseases. In Spain, there is a substantial net of researchers involved in the development of nanodiagnostics and nanomedicines. In this review, we summarize the state of the art of nanotechnology, focusing on nanoparticles, for the treatment of diseases in Spain (2017-2022), and give a perspective on the future trends and direction that nanomedicine research is taking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Fernández-Gómez
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Pérez de la Lastra Aranda
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlota Tosat-Bitrián
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Sebastián Thompson
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
| | - Begoña Sot
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Unidad de Innovación Biomédica, Madrid, Spain
- Advanced Therapies Unit, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Fundación Jiménez Díaz (IIS-FJ UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Gorka Salas
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Álvaro Somoza
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Espinosa
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid, ICMM-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Milagros Castellanos
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
| | - Valle Palomo
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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Wang Z, Zhu H, Li H, Wang Z, Sun M, Yang B, Wang Y, Wang L, Xu L. High-Strength Magnetic Hydrogels with Photoweldability Made by Stepwise Assembly of Magnetic-Nanoparticle-Integrated Aramid Nanofiber Composites. ACS NANO 2023; 17:9622-9632. [PMID: 37134301 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c03156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels capable of transforming in response to a magnetic field hold great promise for applications in soft actuators and biomedical robots. However, achieving high mechanical strength and good manufacturability in magnetic hydrogels remains challenging. Here, inspired by natural load-bearing soft tissues, a class of composite magnetic hydrogels is developed with tissue-mimetic mechanical properties and photothermal welding/healing capability. In these hydrogels, a hybrid network involving aramid nanofibers, Fe3O4 nanoparticles, and poly(vinyl alcohol) is accomplished by a stepwise assembly of the functional components. The engineered interactions between nanoscale constituents enable facile materials processing and confer a combination of excellent mechanical properties, magnetism, water content, and porosity. Furthermore, the photothermal property of Fe3O4 nanoparticles organized around the nanofiber network allows near-infrared welding of the hydrogels, providing a versatile means to fabricate heterogeneous structures with custom designs. Complex modes of magnetic actuation are made possible with the manufactured heterogeneous hydrogel structures, suggesting opportunities for further applications in implantable soft robots, drug delivery systems, human-machine interactions, and other technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuochen Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Advanced Biomedical Instrumentation Centre Limited, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Hengjia Zhu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Hegeng Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Zhisheng Wang
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Mingze Sun
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Bin Yang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Advanced Biomedical Instrumentation Centre Limited, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Yufeng Wang
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Liqiu Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Lizhi Xu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Advanced Biomedical Instrumentation Centre Limited, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
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Li Z, Xue L, Wang P, Ren X, Zhang Y, Wang C, Sun J. Biological Scaffolds Assembled with Magnetic Nanoparticles for Bone Tissue Engineering: A Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:1429. [PMID: 36837058 PMCID: PMC9961196 DOI: 10.3390/ma16041429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) are widely used in bone tissue engineering because of their unique physical and chemical properties and their excellent biocompatibility. Under the action of a magnetic field, SPIONs loaded in a biological scaffold can effectively promote osteoblast proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, and so on. SPIONs have very broad application prospects in bone repair, bone reconstruction, bone regeneration, and other fields. In this paper, several methods for forming biological scaffolds via the biological assembly of SPIONs are reviewed, and the specific applications of these biological scaffolds in bone tissue engineering are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Devices, School of Bioscience and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Le Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Devices, School of Bioscience and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Peng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Devices, School of Bioscience and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xueqian Ren
- Clinical Medical Engineering Department, The Affiliated Zhongda Hospital of Southeast University Medical School, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yunyang Zhang
- Center of Modern Analysis, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210000, China
| | - Chuan Wang
- Naval Medical Center of PLA, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jianfei Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Devices, School of Bioscience and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
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Pardo A, Gómez-Florit M, Barbosa S, Taboada P, Domingues RMA, Gomes ME. Magnetic Nanocomposite Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering: Design Concepts and Remote Actuation Strategies to Control Cell Fate. ACS NANO 2021; 15:175-209. [PMID: 33406360 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c08253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Most tissues of the human body are characterized by highly anisotropic physical properties and biological organization. Hydrogels have been proposed as scaffolding materials to construct artificial tissues due to their water-rich composition, biocompatibility, and tunable properties. However, unmodified hydrogels are typically composed of randomly oriented polymer networks, resulting in homogeneous structures with isotropic properties different from those observed in biological systems. Magnetic materials have been proposed as potential agents to provide hydrogels with the anisotropy required for their use on tissue engineering. Moreover, the intrinsic properties of magnetic nanoparticles enable their use as magnetomechanic remote actuators to control the behavior of the cells encapsulated within the hydrogels under the application of external magnetic fields. In this review, we combine a detailed summary of the main strategies to prepare magnetic nanoparticles showing controlled properties with an analysis of the different approaches available to their incorporation into hydrogels. The application of magnetically responsive nanocomposite hydrogels in the engineering of different tissues is also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Pardo
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciencia e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco-Guimarães, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Manuel Gómez-Florit
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciencia e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco-Guimarães, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Silvia Barbosa
- Colloids and Polymers Physics Group, Condensed Matter Physics Area, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Pablo Taboada
- Colloids and Polymers Physics Group, Condensed Matter Physics Area, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Rui M A Domingues
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciencia e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco-Guimarães, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Manuela E Gomes
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciencia e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco-Guimarães, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
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Li L, Zhang X, Pi C, Yang H, Zheng X, Zhao L, Wei Y. Review of Curcumin Physicochemical Targeting Delivery System. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:9799-9821. [PMID: 33324053 PMCID: PMC7732757 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s276201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Curcumin (CUR), as a traditional Chinese medicine monomer extracted from the rhizomes of some plants in Ginkgo and Araceae, has shown a wide range of therapeutic and pharmacological activities such as anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, anti-virus, anti-liver fibrosis, anti-atherosclerosis, and anti-Alzheimer’s disease. However, some issues significantly affect its biological activity, such as low aqueous solubility, physico-chemical instability, poor bioavailability, and low targeting efficacy. In order to further improve its curative effect, numerous efficient drug delivery systems have been carried out. Among them, physicochemical targeting preparations could improve the properties, targeting ability, and biological activity of CUR. Therefore, in this review, CUR carrier systems are discussed that are driven by physicochemical characteristics of the microenvironment (eg, pH variation of tumorous tissues), affected by external influences like magnetic fields and vehicles formulated with thermo-sensitive materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanmei Li
- Central Nervous System Drug Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, People's Republic of China.,Nanchong Key Laboratory of Individualized Drug Therapy, Department of Pharmacy, The Second Clinical Medical College of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong Central Hospital, Nanchong, Sichuan 637000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaomei Zhang
- Institute of Medicinal Chemistry of Chinese Medicine, Chongqing Academy of Chinese MateriaMedica, Chongqing 400065, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Pi
- Central Nervous System Drug Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongru Yang
- Department of Oncology of Luzhou People's Hospital, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoli Zheng
- Basic Medical College of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Zhao
- Central Nervous System Drug Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yumeng Wei
- Central Nervous System Drug Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, People's Republic of China
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Bijari N, Falsafi M, Pouraghajan K, Khodarahmi R. Synthesis and spectroscopic characterization of new sulfanilamide-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles, and the usability for carbonic anhydrase purification: is there perspective for ‘cancer treatment’ application? J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 39:7093-7106. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1805360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nooshin Bijari
- Medical Biology Research Center (MBRC), Health Technology Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Science, Kermanshah, Iran
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran
| | - Monireh Falsafi
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | | | - Reza Khodarahmi
- Medical Biology Research Center (MBRC), Health Technology Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Science, Kermanshah, Iran
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Schrittwieser S, Haslinger MJ, Mitteramskogler T, Mühlberger M, Shoshi A, Brückl H, Bauch M, Dimopoulos T, Schmid B, Schotter J. Multifunctional Nanostructures and Nanopocket Particles Fabricated by Nanoimprint Lithography. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 9:E1790. [PMID: 31888231 PMCID: PMC6956382 DOI: 10.3390/nano9121790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nanostructured surfaces and nanoparticles are already widely employed in many different fields of research, and there is an ever-growing demand for reliable, reproducible and scalable nanofabrication methods. This is especially valid for multifunctional nanomaterials with physical properties that are tailored for specific applications. Here, we report on the fabrication of two types of nanomaterials. Specifically, we present surfaces comprising a highly uniform array of elliptical pillars as well as nanoparticles with the shape of nanopockets, possessing nano-cavities. The structures are fabricated by nanoimprint lithography, physical and wet-chemical etching and sputter deposition of thin films of various materials to achieve a multifunctional nanomaterial with defined optical and magnetic properties. We show that the nanopockets can be transferred to solution, yielding a nanoparticle dispersion. All fabrication steps are carefully characterized by microscopic and optical methods. Additionally, we show optical simulation results that are in good agreement with the experimentally obtained data. Thus, this versatile method allows to fabricate nanomaterials with specific tailor-made physical properties that can be designed by modelling prior to the actual fabrication process. Finally, we discuss possible application areas of these nanomaterials, which range from biology and medicine to electronics, photovoltaics and photocatalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Schrittwieser
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Molecular Diagnostics, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (B.S.); (J.S.)
| | | | | | | | - Astrit Shoshi
- Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria; (A.S.); (H.B.)
| | - Hubert Brückl
- Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria; (A.S.); (H.B.)
| | - Martin Bauch
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Photovoltaic Systems, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.B.); (T.D.)
| | - Theodoros Dimopoulos
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Photovoltaic Systems, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.B.); (T.D.)
| | - Barbara Schmid
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Molecular Diagnostics, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (B.S.); (J.S.)
| | - Joerg Schotter
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Molecular Diagnostics, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (B.S.); (J.S.)
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