Attitudinal and Intentional Acceptance of Domestic Robots by Younger and Older Adults

Factors associated with intention to use care robots among people with physical disabilities

BACKGROUND

As the disabled population ages and the demand for care increases, Socially, the need for care robots is emerging but, perceptions of care robots among care recipients is unknown.

PURPOSE

To determine the level of intention to use care robots among care recipients and identify predictors of intention to use care robots.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted using a convenience sample of 163 persons with disabilities from January to March 2022 at the Veterans Health Service Medical Center.

DISCUSSION

Overall, 64.42% of respondents intended to use care robots. Predictors included perceived behavioral control, participants' perceptions of the caregiver's burden, attitude toward robot use, subjective norms, and age.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that individuals who are community-dwelling desire the use care robots to maintain their independence and may provide useful insignt for the introduction various care robots in acute care and long-term care settings.

Review of the Factors Affecting Acceptance of AI-Infused Systems

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the factors impacting technology adoption, to predict the acceptance of artificial intelligence (AI)-based technologies.

BACKGROUND

Although the acceptance of AI devices is usually defined by behavioural factors in theories of user acceptance, the effects of technical and human factors are often overlooked. However, research shows that user behaviour can vary depending on a system's technical characteristics and differences in users.

METHOD

A systematic review was conducted. A total of 85 peer-reviewed journal articles that met the inclusion criteria and provided information on the factors influencing the adoption of AI devices were selected for the analysis.

RESULTS

Research on the adoption of AI devices shows that users' attitudes, trust and perceptions about the technology can be improved by increasing transparency, compatibility, and reliability, and simplifying tasks. Moreover, technological factors are also important for reducing issues related to human factors (e.g. distrust, scepticism, inexperience) and supporting users with lower intention to use and lower trust in AI-infused systems.

CONCLUSION

As prior research has confirmed the interrelationship among factors with and without behaviour theories, this review suggests extending the technology acceptance model that integrates the factors studied in this review to define the acceptance of AI devices across different application areas. However, further research is needed to collect more data and validate the study's findings.

APPLICATION

A comprehensive overview of factors influencing the acceptance of AI devices could help researchers and practitioners evaluate user behaviour when adopting new technologies.

Consumers and service robots: Power relationships amid COVID-19 pandemic

Robotics significantly influence retail and consumer services. The COVID-19 pandemic further amplified the rise of service robots (SRs) through social distancing measures. While robots are embraced widely by retailers and service providers, consumers’ interaction with SRs remains an intriguing avenue of research across contexts. By taking a relative social power perspective, we report on a series of pre- and intra-COVID-19 studies. Our findings suggest that Gen-Z consumers hold more positive attitudes towards SRs perceived as lower in power vis-à-vis the human user. The longitudinal nature of our study also reveals that while attitudes towards such low-power services turned more negative during the COVID-19 pandemic, attitudes towards SRs that are high in power vis-à-vis the human user remained stable. In practical terms, while Gen-Z consumers hold more positive attitudes towards low-power robots, such service providers also face the challenge of relatively changeable attitudes towards them, especially during crisis times.

Socially facilitative robots for older adults to alleviate social isolation: A participatory design workshop approach in the US and Japan

Social technology can improve the quality of older adults' social lives and mitigate negative mental and physical health outcomes associated with loneliness, but it should be designed collaboratively with this population. In this paper, we used participatory design (PD) methods to investigate how robots might be used as social facilitators for middle-aged and older adults (age 50+) in both the US and Japan. We conducted PD workshops in the US and Japan because both countries are concerned about the social isolation of these older adults due to their rapidly aging populations. We developed a novel approach to participatory design of future technologies that spends 2/3 of the PD session asking participants about their own life experiences as a foundation. This grounds the conversation in reality, creates rapport among the participants, and engages them in creative critical thinking. Then, we build upon this foundation, pose an abstract topic, and ask participants to brainstorm on the topic based on their previous discussion. In both countries, participants were eager to actively discuss design ideas for socially facilitative robots and imagine how they might improve their social lives. US participants suggested design ideas for telepresence robots, social distancing robots, and social skills artificial intelligence programs, while Japanese participants suggested ideas for pet robots, robots for sharing experiences, and easy-to-operate instructor robots. Comparing these two countries, we found that US participants saw robots as tools to help facilitate their social connections, while Japanese participants envisioned robots to function as surrogate companions for their parents and distract them from loneliness when they were unavailable. With this paper, we contribute to the literature in two main ways, presenting: (1) A novel approach to participatory design of future technologies that grounds participants in their everyday experience, and (2) Results of the study indicating how middle-aged and older adults from the US and Japan wanted technologies to improve their social lives. Although we conducted the workshops during the COVID-19 pandemic, many findings generalized to other situations related to social isolation, such as older adults living alone.

Smart Living Technologies in the Context of Improving the Quality of Life For Older People: The Case of the Humanoid Rudy Robot

Smart living is an essential dimension of an ageing society because one of its measures includes living conditions (health, safety, housing). Many technological solutions are designed to satisfy the needs of older people living in cities. Humanoid robots are one of the technologies that can significantly improve the quality of life in older adults. The Rudy Robot is an example of a robot adapted to the needs of older people. The conducted research aimed to gain knowledge about the potential future use of the humanoid Rudy Robot by older adults in the context of smart living. The study mainly aimed to identify the robot’s most important functionalities that could improve older adults’ quality of life based on a literature review. In addition, the Rudy Robot was rated according to the most important criteria for evaluating the robot. The paper also examined whether age, sex, education and place of residence affect the assessment of the Rudy Robot technology. It should be noted that this technology is not available in Poland but has become known due to television, the Internet, etc. Respondents received a description of this technology, examples of use, and links to literature and films together with the questionnaire; thus, they knew what the Rudy Robot was and its characteristics, possibilities and potential.

Technology Acceptance in Socially Assistive Robots: Scoping Review of Models, Measurement, and Influencing Factors

Objectives

We summarized technology acceptance and the influencing factors of elderly people toward socially assistive robots (SARs).

Methods

A scoping review whereby a literature search was conducted in Embase, Cochrane, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases (2006-2021) to retrieve studies. No restrictions on study methodology were imposed.

Results

Out of the 1187 retrieved papers, 35 studies were finally included in the study. The articles covered various aspects, including general attitudes towards using SARs, technology acceptance theory models, and factors associated with technology acceptance. Twelve studies reported a positive attitude towards SARs. Three explicit theoretical frameworks were reported. Studies involving the elderly reported three themes that influence attitudes towards SARs: individual characteristics, concerns/problems regarding robots, and social factors.

Conclusions

This review elucidates on the suitability of theory-based framework as applied to acceptance of SARs. We found that research on technology acceptance with regard to SARs is still in the developmental stages, and further studies of assessment tools for SARs are required. It is also essential to consider the factors that influence the acceptance of SARs by older people to ensure that they meet the end goal requirements of the user.

Factors influencing the intention to use assistive technologies by older adults

Society is ageing at an unprecedented pace worldwide creating implications for the health and social care. Gerontechnology has been recognized as a solution that increases and supports the independency and well-being of older adults at home. This article aims to identify the most critical success factors effecting the adoption of an assistive gerontechnology by older adults in Poland. The object of the authors' interest was Rudy robot, an AI-enabled mobile solution helping users remain physically healthy, mentally sharp, and socially connected. The data was collected among Polish citizens using the CATI technique between November and December 2020. The number of returned questionnaires amounted to 824. The authors used Generalized Least Squares (GLS) of Structural Equation Modelling (GLS-SEM) to verify the hypotheses. The obtained results confirmed statistically significant relationships between the variables of perceived usefulness of Rudy robot and attitude reflecting the willingness to use this technology, as well as between perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of robot. However, relationship between perceived ease of use and inclination to use this technology in the future was not statistically significant. The conducted research confirmed that the functionality of the analysed Rudy robot for older-adult care positively influences their intension to use it in the future for their own needs or family members. The obtained results confirmed usefulness of robots as assistive technology helping older adults.

Robot-enhanced diabetes care for middle-aged and older adults living with diabetes in the community: A small sample size mixed-method evaluation

Purpose

This study assessed robot-enhanced healthcare in practical settings for the purpose of community diabetes care.

Methods

A mixed method evaluation collected quantitative and qualitative data on diabetes patients over 45 (N = 30) and community pharmacists (N = 10). It took 15–20 min for the diabetes patients to interact with the robot. Before and after the interaction, questionnaires including a diabetes knowledge test, self-efficacy for diabetes, and feasibility of use of the robot was administered. In-depth interviews with both pharmacists and patients were also conducted.

Results

After interacting with the robot, a statistically significant improvement in diabetes knowledge (p < .001) and feasibility of the robot (p = .012) was found, but self-efficacy (p = .171) was not significantly improved. Five themes emerged from interviewing the diabetes patients: Theme 1: meets the needs of self-directed learning for the elderly; Theme 2: reduces alertness and creates comfortable interaction; Theme 3: vividness and richness enhance interaction opportunities; Theme 4: Robots are not without disadvantages, and Theme 5: Every person has unique tastes. Three themes emerged from interviewing pharmacists: Theme 1: Technology must meet the real needs of the patient; Theme 2: creates new services, and Theme 3: The use of robots must conform to real-life situations.

Conclusions

Both the diabetes patients and the pharmacist reported more positive feedback on the robot-enhanced diabetes care than concerns. Self-directed learning, comfortable interaction, and vividness were the most focuses when using robot to enhance self-management for the patients. Pharmacists were most receptive to fit conforming with reality and creating new services.

Robots in Eldercare: How Does a Real-World Interaction with the Machine Influence the Perceptions of Older People?

(1) Background: Using autonomous social robots in selected areas of care for community-dwelling older adults is one of the promising approaches to address the problem of the widening care gap. We posed the question of whether a possibility to interact with the technology to be used had an impact on the scores given by the respondents in various domains of needs and requirements for social robots to be deployed in care for older individuals. (2) Methods: During the study, the opinions of older people (65+; n = 113; with no severe cognitive impairment) living in six social care institutions about a robot in care for older people were collected twice using the Users’ Needs, Requirements and Abilities Questionnaire (UNRAQ): after seeing a photo of the robot only and after a 90−150 min interaction with the TIAGo robot. (3) Results: Mean total scores for both assistive and social functions were higher after the interaction (p < 0.05). A positive correlation was found between opinion changes in social and assistive functions (r = 0.4842; p = 0.0000). (4) Conclusions: Preimplementation studies and assessments should include the possibility to interact with the robot to provide its future users with a clear idea of the technology and facilitate necessary customisations of the machine.

Adolescent Internet gaming addiction and personality characteristics by game genre

With the emergence of a new concept called 'Internet Gaming Disorder' in DSM-5 and ICD-11, related research is underway around the globe. However, not enough literature on Internet gaming addiction has considered the diversity in game genres. Internet gaming addiction may take on a different form according to the particular characteristics of a game being played. To better understand adolescent Internet gaming addiction, this study sought to identify the differences in Internet gaming addiction and personality characteristics based on the game genre played. A total of 3,217 elementary and middle school students across Korea participated in the survey that included the Maladaptive Game Use Scale and the Adolescent Personality Questionnaire. ANOVA analysis revealed that Internet gaming addiction and personality characteristics varied according to the game genre played. In particular, post-hoc tests showed that Real-Time Strategy (RTS) and First-Person Shooter (FPS) game users have higher levels of tolerance, withdrawal, and neglect of everyday life compared to other genres such as Role-Playing Game (RPG), Racing, and Arcade/Shooting. Also, Internet gamers users of particular genres showed significantly lower self-esteem (Arcade/Shooting), conscientiousness (Racing), empathy (RPG), and sense of community (Racing and RTS) scores than comparison group. The implications of the study results were discussed with a special emphasis on Internet gaming addiction interventions.

Robots and the Possibility of Humanistic Care

Care robots are likely to perform increasingly sophisticated caring activities that some will consider comforting and valuable. They will get increasingly humanlike and lifelike. This paper addresses the conceptual question: Even if robots can assist and ease people's suffering, can such machines provide humanistic care? Arguably, humanistic care is the most humanly distinctive and deepest form of care there is. As such, it may be thought to show most starkly the gulf between human and robot caregiving. The paper argues that humanistic caregiving is indeed a distinctive form of 'affective' care dependent on certain uniquely human characteristics or aspects of our humanity which can provide a profound kind of comfort to suffering people. It then argues that there is an important conceptual sense in which robots cannot provide humanistic care. Nonetheless, the paper subsequently suggests that we may recognize a useful sense in which robots, of a suitably anthropomorphic type, can provide humanistic care. Robots might 'express' to people with physical, social, or emotional needs the kind of humanistic care that only human beings can provide but that sufferers can nonetheless receive comfort from precisely because of what is expressed to them. Although this sense of humanistic robot care is derivative from uniquely human care, and although it is wide open to social and ethical criticism, it is nonetheless an idea worth clarifying for anyone interested in the possibilities and limits of robot care.

Personal Narratives in Technology Design: The Value of Sharing Older Adults' Stories in the Design of Social Robots

The storytelling lens in human-computer interaction has primarily focused on personas, design fiction, and other stories crafted by designers, yet informal personal narratives from everyday people have not been considered meaningful data, such as storytelling from older adults. Storytelling may provide a clear path to conceptualize how technologies such as social robots can support the lives of older or disabled individuals. To explore this, we engaged 28 older adults in a year-long co-design process, examining informal stories told by older adults as a means of generating and expressing technology ideas and needs. This paper presents an analysis of participants' stories around their prior experience with technology, stories shaped by social context, and speculative scenarios for the future of social robots. From this analysis, we present suggestions for social robot design, considerations of older adults' values around technology design, and promotion of participant stories as sources for design knowledge and shifting perspectives of older adults and technology.

Final results of the NINFA project: impact of new technologies in the daily life of elderly people

BACKGROUND

The paper presents the work carried out within NINFA (iNtelligent Integrated Network For Aged people), a project for the wellbeing of the elderly people at home.

AIMS

The impact of new technologies on elderly people is evaluated with respect to the three main topics faced by NINFA.

METHODS

NINFA was structured into three main topics: (1) active user engagement from the very beginning of the planning stage: the use of specially designed questionnaires to evaluate the acceptability of new technology in general and robot caregiver specifically; (2) assessment of the well-being through non-invasive techniques: natural language processing for language change monitoring in elderly subjects; (3) automated assessment of motor and cognitive functions at home: systems to deliver tests and exergames through user interfaces compliant with elderly subjects.

RESULTS

The analysis shows that there is no a priori closure to support the technology, but it must not be invasive and must allow social interactions. The study of speech transcripts shows that a large variations in the number of words used to describe the same situation could be a sign on the onset of cognitive impairments. The specifically designed systems highlight, after the training period, significant improvements in the performances of the participants and a satisfaction with regards to the systems usability.

CONCLUSIONS

The outcomes of NINFA project highlight some important aspects of the relationship between elderly people and new technologies concerning: engagement and acceptability, assessment of the wellbeing and of the modifications of motor, cognitive and language functions.

Dignity, Autonomy, and Style of Company: Dimensions Older Adults Consider for Robot Companions

Research into companion robots for older adults, including those who are socially isolated and lonely, continues to grow. Although some insight into older adults' preferences for various robotic types and functionality is emerging, we lack research examining how these robots fulfil or challenge a range of values and aspirations individuals have in later life. This study examines the attitudes and perspectives of 16 older adults (aged 65+) living independently but alone in their own homes, who were interviewed and shown videos depicting three distinctive companion robots: a talking assistant; a roving toylike vehicle; and a robotic dog. This approach illuminated values, preferences, and needs amongst older people that are vital for understanding the potential of companion robots. In comparing the robots, participants expressed concerns about the impact of different companion robots on their abilities and skills, their sense of autonomy and control over their lives, and the maintenance of several kinds of dignity. These results inform user-centered design and use of companion robots for older people living alone and independently.

“THIS ISN’T ME!”: The Role of Age-Related Self- and User Images for Robot Acceptance by Elders

Although companion-type robots are already commercially available, little interest has been taken in identifying reasons for inter-individual differences in their acceptance. Elders’ age-related perceptions of both their own self (self-image) and of the general older robot user (user image) could play a relevant role in this context. Since little is known to date about elders’ companion-type robot user image, it is one aim of this study to investigate its age-related facets, concentrating on possibly stigmatizing perceptions of elder robot users. The study also addresses the association between elders’ age-related self-image and robot acceptance: Is the association independent of the user image or not? To investigate these research questions, N = 28 adults aged 63 years and older were introduced to the companion-type robot Pleo. Afterwards, several markers of robot acceptance were assessed. Actual and ideal self- and subjective robot user image were assessed by a study-specific semantic differential on the stereotype dimensions of warmth and competence. Results show that participants tended to stigmatize elder robot users. The self-images were not directly related to robot acceptance, but affected it in the context of the user image. A higher fit between self- and user image was associated with higher perceived usefulness, social acceptance, and intention to use the robot. To conclude, elders’ subjective interpretations of new technologies play a relevant role for their acceptance. Together with elders’ individual self-images, they need to be considered in both robot development and implementation. Future research should consider that associations between user characteristics and robot acceptance by elders can be complex and easily overlooked.

Impacts of a Care Robotics Project on Finnish Home Care Workers' Attitudes towards Robots

Technological advances in elderly care have been rapid, and the introduction of robots in care will be a topical issue in the near future. There has been little research into the possibility of influencing care workers’ attitudes towards robots by project activities, and how to make the change easier for work communities. This study focuses on a robotics project that took place in elderly and home care services in one municipality in Finland (total of 45 care workers). During the project, four robotics workshops and one extended pilot session were implemented. The study follows quasi-experimental settings, and it included two measurements (before and after project activities) and a control group, but no randomization. The data were collected by questionnaires and were analyzed statistically. The project under study brought about minor positive changes in home care workers’ attitudes towards the usefulness of care robots. In the final measurement, the difference between the test group and the control group was significant in the two dimensions of positive attitudes. The research supports the hypothesis that project activities can be used to influence home care workers’ attitudes towards robots. This can also facilitate the introduction of care robots in home care services. However, the construction of a technology-positive care culture is a long-term process, which requires training and development, technological development and strong strategic management at various levels.

Expectations vs. actual behavior of a social robot: An experimental investigation of the effects of a social robot's interaction skill level and its expected future role on people's evaluations

Since social robots are increasingly entering areas of people’s personal lives, it is crucial to examine what affects people’s perceptions and evaluations of these robots. In this study, three potential influences are examined: 1) the robot’s level of interaction skills, 2) the robot’s expected future role as a helpful assistant or a threatening competitor, and 3) people’s individual background with regard to robots and technology in general. In an experimental lab study with a 2x2 between-subjects-design (N = 162), people read a vignette describing the social robot Nao either as assistant or competitor and subsequently interacted with Nao, which either displayed high or low interaction skills. Results of a structural equation model show that the robot’s interaction skill level had the strongest effect, with a low level leading to a negative evaluation of the robot’s sociability and competence and subsequently a negative general evaluation of the interaction with the robot. A robot which was expected to become a competitor was also evaluated as less sociable than a robot expected to become an assistant. Overall, in case of an actual interaction with a social robot, the robot’s behavior is more decisive for people’s evaluations of it than their expectations or individual backgrounds.

Acceptance of virtual agents in a homecare context: Evaluation of excessive daytime sleepiness in apneic patients during interventions by continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) providers

Sleep apnea syndrome treatment relies primarily on continuous positive airway pressure, which requires a homecare follow-up. Excessive daytime sleepiness is a key symptom to be measured during follow-up, and there is a need for more easy-to-administer, ecological and engaging tools to assess it. Virtual agents have shown their effectiveness in performing clinical evaluation in a medical environment. A virtual agent assessing excessive daytime sleepiness via the Epworth Sleepiness Scale has been tested at home by 102 patients treated by continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and their homecare providers. Acceptance and trustworthiness of the agent, as well as the influence of demographics and clinical characteristics of patients, were investigated. Results showed that both patients and homecare providers reported a positive attitude towards the virtual agent, which was found to be usable, satisfactory, credible and benevolent. Homecare providers reported that it was not a burden to their working routine. Positive regression coefficients were found between patients' and homecare providers' attitudes towards the virtual agent. We found no influence of patients' demographics and clinical characteristics on their acceptance of the virtual agent. This shows that virtual agents are well accepted by patients and homecare providers, independently of their demographics and clinical characteristics. Positive regression coefficients observed between patients' and homecare providers' perceptions of the agent indicate that the opinions of both influence acceptance of the virtual agent in a homecare context. Virtual agents are new innovative digital solutions to be considered in homecare follow-up of apneic patients treated by CPAP.

A Systematic Review of Attitudes, Anxiety, Acceptance, and Trust Towards Social Robots

As social robots become more common, there is a need to understand how people perceive and interact with such technology. This systematic review seeks to estimate people’s attitudes toward, trust in, anxiety associated with, and acceptance of social robots; as well as factors that are associated with these beliefs. Ninety-seven studies were identified with a combined sample of over 13,000 participants and a standardized score was computed for each in order to represent the valence (positive, negative, or neutral) and magnitude (on a scale from 1 to − 1) of people’s beliefs about robots. Potential moderating factors such as the robots’ domain of application and design, the type of exposure to the robot, and the characteristics of potential users were also investigated. The findings suggest that people generally have positive attitudes towards social robots and are willing to interact with them. This finding may challenge some of the existing doubt surrounding the adoption of robotics in social domains of application but more research is needed to fully understand the factors that influence attitudes.

How Prefrail Older People Living Alone Perceive Information and Communications Technology and What They Would Ask a Robot for: Qualitative Study

Background

In the last decade, the family system has changed significantly. Although in the past, older people used to live with their children, nowadays, they cannot always depend on assistance of their relatives. Many older people wish to remain as independent as possible while remaining in their homes, even when living alone. To do so, there are many tasks that they must perform to maintain their independence in everyday life, and above all, their well-being. Information and communications technology (ICT), particularly robotics and domotics, could play a pivotal role in aging, especially in contemporary society, where relatives are not always able to accurately and constantly assist the older person.

Objective

The aim of this study was to understand the needs, preferences, and views on ICT of some prefrail older people who live alone. In particular, we wanted to explore their attitude toward a hypothetical caregiver robot and the functions they would ask for.

Methods

We designed a qualitative study based on an interpretative phenomenological approach. A total of 50 potential participants were purposively recruited in a big town in Northern Italy and were administered the Fried scale (to assess the participants’ frailty) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (to evaluate the older person’s capacity to comprehend the interview questions). In total, 25 prefrail older people who lived alone participated in an individual semistructured interview, lasting approximately 45 min each. Overall, 3 researchers independently analyzed the interviews transcripts, identifying meaning units, which were later grouped in clustering of themes, and finally in emergent themes. Constant triangulation among researchers and their reflective attitude assured trustiness.

Results

From this study, it emerged that a number of interviewees who were currently using ICT (ie, smartphones) did not own a computer in the past, or did not receive higher education, or were not all young older people (aged 65-74 years). Furthermore, we found that among the older people who described their relationship with ICT as negative, many used it in everyday life. Referring to robotics, the interviewees appeared quite open-minded. In particular, robots were considered suitable for housekeeping, for monitoring older people’s health and accidental falls, and for entertainment.

Conclusions

Older people’s use and attitudes toward ICT does not always seem to be related to previous experiences with technological devices, higher education, or lower age. Furthermore, many participants in this study were able to use ICT, even if they did not always acknowledge it. Moreover, many interviewees appeared to be open-minded toward technological devices, even toward robots. Therefore, proposing new advanced technology to a group of prefrail people, who are self-sufficient and can live alone at home, seems to be feasible.

Age Difference in Perceived Ease of Use, Curiosity, and Implicit Negative Attitude toward Robots

Understanding older adults’ attitudes toward robots has become increasingly important as robots have been introduced in various settings, such as retirement homes. We investigated whether there are age differences in both implicit and explicit attitudes toward robots after interacting with an assistive robot. Twenty-four younger and 24 older adults were recruited. Explicit attitudes were measured by self-reported questionnaires both before and after interacting with the robot. State curiosity toward robots was also measured as a momentary form of explicit attitude. Implicit attitude was measured via an implicit association test. Our results showed that (1) both older and younger adults had more positive explicit attitudes toward robots after interaction; (2) older adults had lower state curiosity than younger adults, however, their state curiosity would be up to the same level as younger adults when they perceived the robot with higher levels of personal association; and (3) the implicit association between robots and negative words was stronger for older adults than younger adults, suggesting that older adults had more implicit negative attitude toward robots. The results suggest that, despite older adults’ relatively more negative implicit attitude toward robots, personally relevant positive experiences could help improve their explicit attitudes toward robots.

Great Expectations? Relation of Previous Experiences With Social Robots in Real Life or in the Media and Expectancies Based on Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment

Social robots, which mostly look and behave like humans, are often perceived as somehow alive and treated similar to humans, despite the fact that they are non-living electronic devices. Based on considerations of the uncertainty reduction theory, the question arises what expectancies regarding social robots people have and what sources they use to achieve these expectancies. To receive an in-depth understanding of people's expectancies regarding social robots and particularly how these expectancies are influenced by people's experiences with real robots but also with fictional robots from media, thirteen semi-structured interviews and a quantitative online study (n = 433) were conducted. Results indicate that people's experiences with robots in the media lead to high expectations regarding the skills of robots, which in turn increase people's general expectancies regarding social robots being part of the society as well as their personal lives. Furthermore, knowledge of negatively perceived fictional robots increases negative expectancies of robots becoming a threat to humans, while technical affinity reduces general robot anxiety.

In-home and remote use of robotic body surrogates by people with profound motor deficits

By controlling robots comparable to the human body, people with profound motor deficits could potentially perform a variety of physical tasks for themselves, improving their quality of life. The extent to which this is achievable has been unclear due to the lack of suitable interfaces by which to control robotic body surrogates and a dearth of studies involving substantial numbers of people with profound motor deficits. We developed a novel, web-based augmented reality interface that enables people with profound motor deficits to remotely control a PR2 mobile manipulator from Willow Garage, which is a human-scale, wheeled robot with two arms. We then conducted two studies to investigate the use of robotic body surrogates. In the first study, 15 novice users with profound motor deficits from across the United States controlled a PR2 in Atlanta, GA to perform a modified Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) and a simulated self-care task. Participants achieved clinically meaningful improvements on the ARAT and 12 of 15 participants (80%) successfully completed the simulated self-care task. Participants agreed that the robotic system was easy to use, was useful, and would provide a meaningful improvement in their lives. In the second study, one expert user with profound motor deficits had free use of a PR2 in his home for seven days. He performed a variety of self-care and household tasks, and also used the robot in novel ways. Taking both studies together, our results suggest that people with profound motor deficits can improve their quality of life using robotic body surrogates, and that they can gain benefit with only low-level robot autonomy and without invasive interfaces. However, methods to reduce the rate of errors and increase operational speed merit further investigation.

A phased framework for long-term user acceptance of interactive technology in domestic environments

The temporal dimension of acceptance is under-researched in technology acceptance research. Yet, people's perceptions on technology use may change over time when gaining user experiences. Our 6-month home study deploying an interactive robot provides insight into the long-term use of use interactive technology in a domestic environment. We present a phased framework for the acceptance of interactive technology in domestic environments. Based on 97 interviews obtained from 21 participants living in different household types, the results provide an initial validation of our phased framework for long-term acceptance showing that acceptance phases are linked to certain user experiences which evolve over time when people gain experience with the technology. Involving end users in the early stages of development helps researchers understand the cultural and social contexts of acceptance and enables developers to apply this gained knowledge into their future designs.

Assessment of Perceived Attractiveness, Usability, and Societal Impact of a Multimodal Robotic Assistant for Aging Patients With Memory Impairments

The aim of the present study is to present the results of the assessment of clinical application of the robotic assistant for patients suffering from mild cognitive impairments (MCI) and Alzheimer Disease (AD). The human-robot interaction (HRI) evaluation approach taken within the study is a novelty in the field of social robotics. The proposed assessment of the robotic functionalities are based on end-user perception of attractiveness, usability and potential societal impact of the device. The methods of evaluation applied consist of User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ), AttrakDiff and the societal impact inventory tailored for the project purposes. The prototype version of the Robotic Assistant for MCI patients at Home (RAMCIP) was tested in a semi-controlled environment at the Department of Neurology (Lublin, Poland). Eighteen elderly participants, 10 healthy and 8 MCI, performed everyday tasks and functions facilitated by RAMCIP. The tasks consisted of semi-structuralized scenarios like: medication intake, hazardous events prevention, and social interaction. No differences between the groups of subjects were observed in terms of perceived attractiveness, usability nor-societal impact of the device. The robotic assistant societal impact and attractiveness were highly assessed. The usability of the device was reported as neutral due to the short time of interaction.

Factors Predicting Decisions About Technology Adoption Among Older Adults

Background and Objectives

Numerous technology applications are available that have the potential to improve the quality of life (QoL) of older adults. However, older adults are less likely to adopt new and emerging technologies and reap the potential benefits. This study examines factors that influence older adults’ decisions about the adoption of new technology.

Research Design and Methods

Fifty-two older adults participated in a mixed-method procedure, which entailed: (1) observing presentations detailing nine differing technologies, (2) assessing the technologies using tailored questionnaires, and (3) participating in focus group discussions. Participants were assigned into one of seven groups separated by age (65–74, 75+) and language (English, Spanish). The outcome was willingness to adopt technology. Predictors included self-assessed abilities (e.g., numeric ability), computer/Internet skills and knowledge, technology readiness, age, language, and technology ratings (e.g., perceived value). Analyses included Spearman’s ρ, t-tests, and regression analysis. Focus group discussions were examined for supportive examples.

Results

Self-assessed abilities and computer/Internet skills were predictive of willingness to adopt technologies although the relationship varied according to the technology examined. Technology readiness, age, and language group showed weak associations with the outcome. Of the technology ratings, perceived value, confidence in ability to learn the technology, and the perceived impact on QoL were the most robust predictors of willingness to adopt technology.

Discussion and Implications

Findings indicate that various stakeholders in technology adoption among older adults must be cognizant of a technology’s functionality and complexity as well as the characteristics and abilities of older adults. However, certain factors such as perceptions about the value of the technology and potential impact on QoL are also critically important to decisions regarding technology adoption among older people.

Older adults' acceptance of a robot for partner dance-based exercise

Partner dance has been shown to be beneficial for the health of older adults. Robots could potentially facilitate healthy aging by engaging older adults in partner dance-based exercise. However, partner dance involves physical contact between the dancers, and older adults would need to be accepting of partner dancing with a robot. Using methods from the technology acceptance literature, we conducted a study with 16 healthy older adults to investigate their acceptance of robots for partner dance-based exercise. Participants successfully led a human-scale wheeled robot with arms (i.e., a mobile manipulator) in a simple, which we refer to as the Partnered Stepping Task (PST). Participants led the robot by maintaining physical contact and applying forces to the robot's end effectors. According to questionnaires, participants were generally accepting of the robot for partner dance-based exercise, tending to perceive it as useful, easy to use, and enjoyable. Participants tended to perceive the robot as easier to use after performing the PST with it. Through a qualitative data analysis of structured interview data, we also identified facilitators and barriers to acceptance of robots for partner dance-based exercise. Throughout the study, our robot used admittance control to successfully dance with older adults, demonstrating the feasibility of this method. Overall, our results suggest that robots could successfully engage older adults in partner dance-based exercise.

Understanding the Potential of PARO for Healthy Older Adults

As the population ages, there is an increasing need for socio-emotional support for older adults. A potential way to meet this need is through interacting with pet-type robots such as the seal robot, PARO. There was a need to extend research on PARO's potential benefits beyond cognitively impaired and dependently living older adults. Because independently living, cognitively intact older adults may also have socio-emotional needs, the primary goal of this study was to investigate their attitudes, emotions, and engagement with PARO to identify its potential applicability to this demographic. Thirty older adults participated in an interaction period with PARO, and their attitudes and emotions toward PARO were assessed before and after using a multi-method approach. Video of the interaction was coded to determine the types and frequency of engagements participants initiated with PARO. Overall, there were no pre-post interaction differences on these measures. However, semi-structured interviews suggested that these older adults had positive attitudes towards PARO's attributes, thought it would be easy to use, and perceived potential uses for both themselves and others. Participants varied in their frequency of engagement with PARO. A novel finding is that this active engagement frequency uniquely predicted post-interaction period positive affect. This study advances understanding of healthy older adults' attitudes, emotions, and engagement with PARO and of possible ways in which PARO could provide social and emotional support to healthy older adults. The results are informative for future research and design of pet-type robots.

Attitudinal Change in Elderly Citizens Toward Social Robots: The Role of Personality Traits and Beliefs About Robot Functionality

Attitudes toward robots influence the tendency to accept or reject robotic devices. Thus it is important to investigate whether and how attitudes toward robots can change. In this pilot study we investigate attitudinal changes in elderly citizens toward a tele-operated robot in relation to three parameters: (i) the information provided about robot functionality, (ii) the number of encounters, (iii) personality type. Fourteen elderly residents at a rehabilitation center participated. Pre-encounter attitudes toward robots, anthropomorphic thinking, and personality were assessed. Thereafter the participants interacted with a tele-operated robot (Telenoid) during their lunch (c. 30 min.) for up to 3 days. Half of the participants were informed that the robot was tele-operated (IC) whilst the other half were naïve to its functioning (UC). Post-encounter assessments of attitudes toward robots and anthropomorphic thinking were undertaken to assess change. Attitudes toward robots were assessed with a new generic 35-items questionnaire (attitudes toward social robots scale: ASOR-5), offering a differentiated conceptualization of the conditions for social interaction. There was no significant difference between the IC and UC groups in attitude change toward robots though trends were observed. Personality was correlated with some tendencies for attitude changes; Extraversion correlated with positive attitude changes to intimate-personal relatedness with the robot (r = 0.619) and to psychological relatedness (r = 0.581) whilst Neuroticism correlated negatively (r = -0.582) with mental relatedness with the robot. The results tentatively suggest that neither information about functionality nor direct repeated encounters are pivotal in changing attitudes toward robots in elderly citizens. This may reflect a cognitive congruence bias where the robot is experienced in congruence with initial attitudes, or it may support action-based explanations of cognitive dissonance reductions, given that robots, unlike computers, are not yet perceived as action targets. Specific personality traits may be indicators of attitude change relating to specific domains of social interaction. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Overcoming Barriers and Increasing Independence – Service Robots for Elderly and Disabled People

The paper discusses the potential of assistive service robots to support disabled and elderly people. It shows that they have considerable untapped potential in this area, but also that inappropriate implementations could increase isolation, reduce independence and lead to users feeling as though they are under surveillance. The main body of the paper presents an overview of existing applications and discusses their benefits and potential problems. This is organized by an extension of the common classification into socially and physically assistive robots by the two categories of sensory assistive and mixed assistance robots. Another more detailed classification is also presented. This discussion is introduced by an overview of many of the technological components of smart mobile robots. It is followed by a discussion of user acceptance. The problems of existing models based on either solely positive or solely negative factors are noted and a model containing both types of factors is proposed. The need for continuing research is noted and various proposals are made.

Understanding Older Adults' Perceptions of Usefulness for the Paro Robot

There is a growing proportion of older adults in the population. Normal aging brings about difficulty in maintaining autonomy as well as an increased need for social support. Animal-assisted therapy and pet-type robots may be a solution to this problem. However, older adults' living situations cannot always accommodate live animals and there are design limitations associated with many of the current pet-type robots. Paro's design addresses some of these issues, but perceptions of Paro's usefulness remain largely unexplored in the normally aging older adult population. The focus of this paper was to address perceived usefulness of the robot Paro as well as potential influencing factors of perceived usefulness. In this study, 30 healthy older adults (ages 67-80) completed questionnaires and answered interview questions regarding perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of Paro before and after they interacted with it. The data revealed that the participants were neutral regarding perceived usefulness of Paro in their daily lives. However, most participants indicated specific uses for themselves and others, which raised concerns regarding the applicability of the Perceived Usefulness measure in this context. Furthermore, most participants said that they would want to own Paro, and perceived it as being beneficial to other people. Data analysis is ongoing, but initial findings and potential response trends have been identified and discussed. Our results provide insights into healthy older adults' thoughts toward and acceptance of this robot, as well as potential influencing factors of its acceptance.

Toward a framework for levels of robot autonomy in human-robot interaction

A critical construct related to human-robot interaction (HRI) is autonomy, which varies widely across robot platforms. Levels of robot autonomy (LORA), ranging from teleoperation to fully autonomous systems, influence the way in which humans and robots may interact with one another. Thus, there is a need to understand HRI by identifying variables that influence - and are influenced by - robot autonomy. Our overarching goal is to develop a framework for levels of robot autonomy in HRI. To reach this goal, the framework draws links between HRI and human-automation interaction, a field with a long history of studying and understanding human-related variables. The construct of autonomy is reviewed and redefined within the context of HRI. Additionally, the framework proposes a process for determining a robot's autonomy level, by categorizing autonomy along a 10-point taxonomy. The framework is intended to be treated as guidelines to determine autonomy, categorize the LORA along a qualitative taxonomy, and consider which HRI variables (e.g., acceptance, situation awareness, reliability) may be influenced by the LORA.

Domestic Robots for Older Adults: Attitudes, Preferences, and Potential

The population of older adults in America is expected to reach an unprecedented level in the near future. Some of them have difficulties with performing daily tasks and caregivers may not be able to match pace with the increasing need for assistance. Robots, especially mobile manipulators, have the potential for assisting older adults with daily tasks enabling them to live independently in their homes. However, little is known about their views of robot assistance in the home. Twenty-one independently living older Americans (65-93 years old) were asked about their preferences for and attitudes toward robot assistance via a structured group interview and questionnaires. In the group interview, they generated a diverse set of 121 tasks they would want a robot to assist them with in their homes. These data, along with their questionnaire responses, suggest that the older adults were generally open to robot assistance but were discriminating in their acceptance of assistance for different tasks. They preferred robot assistance over human assistance for tasks related to chores, manipulating objects, and information management. In contrast, they preferred human assistance to robot assistance for tasks related to personal care and leisure activities. Our study provides insights into older adults' attitudes and preferences for robot assistance with everyday living tasks in the home which may inform the design of robots that will be more likely accepted by older adults.

Preferences for technology versus human assistance and control over technology in the performance of kitchen and personal care tasks in baby boomers and older adults

PURPOSE

Quality of Life technology (QoLT) stresses humans and technology as mutually dependent and aware, working together to improve task performance and quality of life. This study examines preferences for technology versus human assistance and control in the context of QoLT.

METHOD

Data are from a nationally representative, cross-sectional web-based sample of 416 US baby boomers (45-64) and 114 older adults (65+) on preferences for technology versus human assistance and control in the performance of kitchen and personal care tasks. Multinomial logistic regression and ordinary least squares regression were used to determine predictors of these preferences.

RESULTS

Respondents were generally accepting of technology assistance but wanted to maintain control over its' operation. Baby boomers were more likely to prefer technology than older adults, and those with fewer QoLT privacy concerns and who thought they were more likely to need future help were more likely to prefer technology over human assistance and more willing to relinquish control to technology.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest the need for design of person- and context-aware QoLT systems that are responsive to user desires for level of control over operation of the technology. The predictors of these preferences suggest potentially receptive markets for the targeting of QoLT systems.

OLDER ADULTS' PREFERENCES FOR AND ACCEPTANCE OF ROBOT ASSISTANCE FOR EVERYDAY LIVING TASKS

Many older adults value their independence and prefer to age in place. Robots can be designed to assist older people with performing everyday living tasks and maintaining their independence at home. Yet, there is a scarcity of knowledge regarding older adults' attitudes toward robots and their preferences for robot assistance. Twenty-one older adults (M = 80.25 years old, SD = 7.19) completed questionnaires and participated in structured group interviews investigating their openness to and preferences for assistance from a mobile manipulator robot. Although the older adults were generally open to robot assistance for performing home-based tasks, they were selective in their views. Older adults preferred robot assistance over human assistance for many instrumental (e.g., housekeeping, laundry, medication reminders) and enhanced activities of daily living (e.g., new learning, hobbies). However, older adults were less open to robot assistance for some activities of daily living (e.g., shaving, hair care). Results from this study provide insight into older adults' attitudes toward robot assistance with home-based everyday living tasks.

Toward a psychological science of advanced technology design for older adults

OBJECTIVES

Technology represents advances in knowledge that change the way humans perform tasks. Ideally, technology will make the task easier, more efficient, safer, or perhaps more pleasurable. Unfortunately, new technologies can sometimes make a task more difficult, slower, dangerous, or perhaps more frustrating. Older adults interact with a variety of technologies in the course of their daily activities and thus products should be designed to be used by people of varying ages.

METHODS

In this article, we provide an overview of what psychology has to offer to the design of technology-from understanding what people need, to identifying their preferences for design characteristics, and to defining their capabilities and limitations that will influence technology interactions.

RESULTS

We identify how research in the field of psychology and aging has advanced understanding of technology interactions and how research on technology interactions can inform theories of aging.

DISCUSSION

Design for aging involves understanding the unique capabilities and limitations of older adults; identifying their needs, preferences, and desires for technology in their lives; and involving them in the design process.