The Role of Organic Osmolytes in the Regulation of Mammalian Cell Volume. In: Gilles R, Hoffmann EK, Bolis L, editors. Advances in Comparative and Environmental Physiology. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 1991. pp. 189-225. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-76226-0_7]

Determination of de novo synthesized amino acids in cellular proteins revisited by 13C NMR spectroscopy

13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to determine the absolute amounts to de novo synthesized amino acids in both the perchloric acid extracts and the hydrolyzed protein fractions of F98 glioma cells incubated for 2 h with 5 mmol/l [U-13C]glucose. 13C NMR spectra of the hydrolyzed protein fraction revealed a marked incorporation of 13C-labelled alanine, aspartate and glutamate into the proteins of F98 cells within the incubation period. Additionally, small amounts of 13C-labelled glycine, proline and serine could unambiguously be identified in the protein fraction. Astonishingly, approximately equal amounts of 13C-labelled glutamate and aspartate were incorporated into the cellular proteins, although the cytosolic steady-state concentration of aspartate was below 13C NMR detectability. Hypertonic stress decreased the incorporation of 13C-labelled amino acids into the total protein, albeit their cytosolic concentrations were increased, which reflects an inhibition of protein synthesis under these conditions. On the other hand, hypotonic stress increased the amount of 13C-labelled proline incorporated into the cellular proteins even though the cytosolic concentration of 13C-labelled proline was largely decreased. Apparently, hypoosmotic conditions stimulate the synthesis of proteins or peptides with a high proline content. The results show that already after 2 h of incubation with [U-13C]glucose there is a pronounced flux of 13C label into the cellular proteins, which is usually disregarded if cytosolic fluids are examined only. This means that calculations of metabolic fluxes based on 13C NMR spectroscopic data obtained from perchloric acid extracts of cells or tissues and also from in vivo measurements consider only the labelled 'NMR visible' cytosolic metabolites, which may have to be corrected for fast label flowing off into other compartments.

Osmoregulation in the renal papilla: membranes, messengers and molecules

This contribution summarizes recent progress in the understanding of the molecular basis of the release of organic osmolytes that occurs when inner medullary cells are confronted with a drop in osmolarity in their environment. For sorbitol release across the basolateral membrane an increase in intracellular calcium seems to be the prominent signal, initiated by G-protein activation, followed by phosphatidylcholine phospholipase activation and generation of arachidonic acid. The increase in betaine permeability is also G-protein dependent but calcium independent, and is restricted to the basal-lateral cell face. Myo-inositol and glycerophosphorylcholine efflux are calcium and G-protein independent and occur both across the apical and basolateral membrane, although to a different extent. Taurine release is also calcium and G-protein independent; a swelling-activated anion channel at the basolateral membrane represents the major efflux pathway.

Changes in organic solutes, volume, energy state, and metabolism associated with osmotic stress in a glial cell line: a multinuclear NMR study

Diffusion-weighted in vivo 1H-NMR spectroscopy of F98 glioma cells embedded in basement membrane gel threads showed that the initial cell swelling to about 180% of the original volume induced under hypotonic stress was followed by a regulatory volume decrease to nearly 100% of the control volume in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) but only to 130% in Krebs-Henseleit buffer (KHB, containing only glucose as a substrate) after 7 h. The initial cell shrinkage to approx. 70% induced by the hypertonic stress was compensated by a regulatory volume increase which after 7 h reached almost 100% of the control value in KHB and 75% in DMEM. 1H-, 13C- and 31P-NMR spectroscopy of perchloric acid extracts showed that these volume regulatory processes were accompanied by pronounced changes in the content of organic osmolytes. Adaptation of intra- to extracellular osmolarity was preferentially mediated by a decrease in the cytosolic taurine level under hypotonic stress and by an intracellular accumulation of amino acids under hypertonic stress. If these solutes were not available in sufficient quantities (as in KHB), the osmolarity of the cytosol was increasingly modified by biosynthesis of products and intermediates of essential metabolic pathways, such as alanine, glutamate and glycerophosphocholine in addition to ethanolamine. The cellular nucleoside triphosphate level measured by in vivo 31P-NMR spectroscopy indicated that the energy state of the cells was more easily sustained under hypotonic than hypertonic conditions.

Membrane mechanisms and intracellular signalling in cell volume regulation

Recent work on selected aspects of the cellular and molecular physiology of cell volume regulation is reviewed. First, the physiological significance of the regulation of cell volume is discussed. Membrane transporters involved in cell volume regulation are reviewed, including volume-sensitive K+ and Cl- channels, K+, Cl- and Na+, K+, 2Cl- cotransporters, and the Na+, H+, Cl-, HCO3-, and K+, H+ exchangers. The role of amino acids, particularly taurine, as cellular osmolytes is discussed. Possible mechanisms by which cells sense their volumes, along with the sensors of these signals, are discussed. The signals are mechanical changes in the membrane and changes in macromolecular crowding. Sensors of these signals include stretch-activated channels, the cytoskeleton, and specific membrane or cytoplasmic enzymes. Mechanisms for transduction of the signal from sensors to transporters are reviewed. These include the Ca(2+)-calmodulin system, phospholipases, polyphosphoinositide metabolism, eicosanoid metabolism, and protein kinases and phosphatases. A detailed model is presented for the swelling-initiated signal transduction pathway in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells. Finally, the coordinated control of volume-regulatory transport processes and changes in the expression of organic osmolyte transporters with long-term adaptation to osmotic stress are reviewed briefly.

Properties of osmolyte fluxes activated during regulatory volume decrease in cultured cerebellar granule neurons

Efflux pathways for amino acids, K, and Cl activated during regulatory volume decrease (RVD) were characterized in cultured cerebellar granule neurons exposed to hyposmotic conditions. Results of this study favor diffusion pores (presumably channels) over energy-dependent transporters as the mechanisms responsible for the efflux of these osmolytes. The selectivity of osmolyte pathways activated by RVD was assessed by increasing the extracellular concentrations of cations, anions, and amino acids to such an extent that upon opening of the pathway, a permeable compound will enter the cell and block RVD by reducing the efflux of water carried by the exit of intracellular osmolytes. The cationic pathway was found selective for K (and Rb), whereas the anionic pathway was rather unselective being permeable to Cl, nitrate, iodine, benzoate, thiocyanate, and sulfate but impermeable to gluconate. Glutamate and aspartate as K but not as Na salts were permeable through the anion channel. RVD was slightly inhibited by quinidine but otherwise was insensitive to known K channel blockers. RVD was inhibited by 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2-2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), niflumic acid, and dipyridamole. Gramicidin did not affect cell volume in isosmotic conditions but greatly accelerated RVD, suggesting that cell permeability to Cl is low in isosmotic conditions but increases markedly during RVD making K permeability the rate limit of the process. The permeability pathway for amino acids activated during RVD as permeable to short chain alpha- and beta-amino acids, but excluded glutamine and basic amino acids.

Characterization of stretch-activated ion channels in cultured astrocytes

The presence of a stretch-activated channel in rat cerebellar astrocytes in culture is described. This stretch-sensitive channel is K(+)-selective and its open probability increases with suction following a Boltzmann-like distribution with half activation at 45 mm Hg. Kinetic analysis of the single-channel data indicated that there are two open and two closed states and that the shortest time constants of both open and closed states are the most sensitive to suction. A symmetrical two-barrier-one-site permeation model can quantitatively describe the inward rectification of the single-channel current to voltage relations. It is suggested that this stretch-activated channel plays a role in the regulatory volume response of astrocytes to hyposmotic conditions.

Contribution of organic and inorganic osmolytes to volume regulation in rat brain cells in culture

In this work we examined the time course and the amount released, by hyposmolarity, for the most abundant free amino acids (FAA) in rat brain cortex astrocytes and neurons in culture. The aim was to evaluate their contribution to the process of cell volume regulation. Taurine, glutamate, and D-aspartate in the two types of cells, beta-alanine in astrocytes and GABA in neurons were promptly released by hyposmolarity, reaching a maximum within 1-2 min. after an osmolarity change. A substantial amount of the intracellular pool of these amino acids was mobilized in response to hyposmolarity. The amount released in media with osmolarity reduced from 300 mOsm to 150 mOsm or 210 mOsm, represented 50%-65% and 13%-31%, respectively, of the total amino acid content in cells. In both astrocytes and neurons, the efflux of glutamine and alanine was higher under isosmotic conditions and increased only marginally during hyposmotic conditions. 86Rb+, used as tracer for K+, was released from astrocytes, 30% and 11%, respectively, in hyposmotic media of 150 mOsm or 210 mOsm but was not transported in neurons. From these results it was calculated that FAA contribute 54% and inorganic ions 46% to the process of volume regulation in astrocytes exposed to a 150 mOsm hyposmotic medium. This contribution was 55% for FAA and 45% for K+ and Cl- in cells exposed to 210 mOsm hyposmotic solutions. These results indicate that the contribution of FAA to the process of cell volume regulation is higher in astrocytes than in other cell types including renal and blood cells.