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Kahariri S, Thumbi SM, Bett B, Mureithi MW, Nyaga N, Ogendo A, Muturi M, Thomas LF. The evolution of Kenya's animal health surveillance system and its potential for efficient detection of zoonoses. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1379907. [PMID: 38966562 PMCID: PMC11223174 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1379907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Animal health surveillance systems in Kenya have undergone significant changes and faced various challenges throughout the years. Methods In this article, we present a comprehensive overview of the Kenya animal health surveillance system (1944 to 2024), based on a review of archived documents, a scoping literature review, and an examination of past surveillance assessments and evaluation reports. Results The review of archived documents revealed key historical events that have shaped the surveillance system. These include the establishment of the Directorate of Veterinary Services in 1895, advancements in livestock farming, the implementation of mandatory disease control interventions in 1944, the growth of veterinary services from a section to a ministry in 1954, the disruption caused by the Mau Mau insurrection from 1952 to 1954, which led to the temporary halt of agriculture in certain regions until 1955, the transition of veterinary clinical services from public to private, and the progressive privatization plan for veterinary services starting in 1976. Additionally, we highlight the development of electronic surveillance from 2003 to 2024. The scoping literature review, assessments and evaluation reports uncovered several strengths and weaknesses of the surveillance system. Among the strengths are a robust legislative framework, the adoption of technology in surveillance practices, the existence of a formal intersectoral coordination platform, the implementation of syndromic, sentinel, and community-based surveillance methods, and the presence of a feedback mechanism. On the other hand, the system's weaknesses include the inadequate implementation of strategies and enforcement of laws, the lack of standard case definitions for priority diseases, underutilization of laboratory services, the absence of formal mechanisms for data sharing across sectors, insufficient resources for surveillance and response, limited integration of surveillance and laboratory systems, inadequate involvement of private actors and communities in disease surveillance, and the absence of a direct supervisory role between the national and county veterinary services. Discussion and recommendations To establish an effective early warning system, we propose the integration of surveillance systems and the establishment of formal data sharing mechanisms. Furthermore, we recommend enhancing technological advancements and adopting artificial intelligence in surveillance practices, as well as implementing risk-based surveillance to optimize the allocation of surveillance resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Kahariri
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Nairobi, Kenya
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - S. M. Thumbi
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Bernard Bett
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Marianne W. Mureithi
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nazaria Nyaga
- County Directorate of Veterinary Services, Kajiado, Kenya
| | - Allan Ogendo
- County Directorate of Veterinary Services, Busia, Kenya
| | - Mathew Muturi
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Nairobi, Kenya
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Lian Francesca Thomas
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Institute of Infection Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom
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Hu B, Han S, He H. Effect of epidemic diseases on wild animal conservation. Integr Zool 2023; 18:963-980. [PMID: 37202360 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Under the background of global species extinction, the impact of epidemic diseases on wild animal protection is increasingly prominent. Here, we review and synthesize the literature on this topic, and discuss the relationship between diseases and biodiversity. Diseases usually reduce species diversity by decreasing or extinction of species populations, but also accelerate species evolution and promote species diversity. At the same time, species diversity can regulate disease outbreaks through dilution or amplification effects. The synergistic effect of human activities and global change is emphasized, which further aggravates the complex relationship between biodiversity and diseases. Finally, we emphasize the importance of active surveillance of wild animal diseases, which can protect wild animals from potential diseases, maintain population size and genetic variation, and reduce the damage of diseases to the balance of the whole ecosystem and human health. Therefore, we suggest that a background survey of wild animal populations and their pathogens should be carried out to assess the impact of potential outbreaks on the population or species level. The mechanism of dilution and amplification effect between species diversity and diseases of wild animals should be further studied to provide a theoretical basis and technical support for human intervention measures to change biodiversity. Most importantly, we should closely combine the protection of wild animals with the establishment of an active surveillance, prevention, and control system for wild animal epidemics, in an effort to achieve a win-win situation between wild animal protection and disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Hu
- National Research Center for Wildlife-Borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shuyi Han
- National Research Center for Wildlife-Borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hongxuan He
- National Research Center for Wildlife-Borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Abstract
Zoonoses are diseases and infections naturally transmitted between humans and vertebrate animals. Over the years, zoonoses have become increasingly significant threats to global health. They form the dominant group of diseases among the emerging infectious diseases (EID) and currently account for 73% of EID. Approximately 25% of zoonoses originate in domestic animals. The etiological agents of zoonoses include different pathogens, with viruses accounting for approximately 30% of all zoonotic infections. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted directly or indirectly, by contact, via aerosols, through a vector, or vertically in utero. Zoonotic diseases are found in every continent except Antarctica. Numerous factors associated with the pathogen, human activities, and the environment play significant roles in the transmission and emergence of zoonotic diseases. Effective response and control of zoonotic diseases call for multiple-sector involvement and collaboration according to the One Health concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oyewale Tomori
- African Centre of Excellence for Genomics of Infectious Diseases (ACEGID), Redeemer's University, Ede, Nigeria; ,
| | - Daniel O Oluwayelu
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Centre for Control and Prevention of Zoonoses, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria; ,
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Vittor AY, Laporta GZ, Sallum MAM, Walker RT. The COVID-19 crisis and Amazonia's indigenous people: Implications for conservation and global health. WORLD DEVELOPMENT 2021; 145:105533. [PMID: 36570383 PMCID: PMC9758534 DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Ecosystem health and zoonotic diseases are closely interwoven. Even as we grapple with the SARS-Coronavirus-2 pandemic, which may have its origins in wildlife, weakening environmental policies in the Brazilian Amazon are elevating the risk of additional zoonotic spillover events. We examine the links between deforestation and disease emergence in the Amazon, as illustrated by outbreaks of yellow fever virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, and Oropouche virus. It has been well established that in Brazil, indigenous territories exhibit lower rates of forest conversion and degradation than in areas designated for sustainable use. In this way, Amazonia's indigenous tribes promote public health while sustaining ecosystem services. However, indigenous land rights are under attack due to current policies enabling illegal land grabbing, mining and logging. Further adding to the existential struggle of indigenous tribes, malaria and SARS-Coronavirus-2 are wreaking havoc on these vulnerable populations. There is a critical need for protection of indigenous people's rights and health, as well as a sustained effort to support the study of mechanisms underlying anthropogenic land use change and zoonotic disease risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Y Vittor
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Gabriel Zorello Laporta
- Setor de Pós-graduação, Pesquisa e Inovação, Centro Universitário Saúde ABC (FMABC), Fundação do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria Anice Mureb Sallum
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Robert T Walker
- Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Common Themes in Zoonotic Spillover and Disease Emergence: Lessons Learned from Bat- and Rodent-Borne RNA Viruses. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081509. [PMID: 34452374 PMCID: PMC8402684 DOI: 10.3390/v13081509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodents (order Rodentia), followed by bats (order Chiroptera), comprise the largest percentage of living mammals on earth. Thus, it is not surprising that these two orders account for many of the reservoirs of the zoonotic RNA viruses discovered to date. The spillover of these viruses from wildlife to human do not typically result in pandemics but rather geographically confined outbreaks of human infection and disease. While limited geographically, these viruses cause thousands of cases of human disease each year. In this review, we focus on three questions regarding zoonotic viruses that originate in bats and rodents. First, what biological strategies have evolved that allow RNA viruses to reside in bats and rodents? Second, what are the environmental and ecological causes that drive viral spillover? Third, how does virus spillover occur from bats and rodents to humans?
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Keatts LO, Robards M, Olson SH, Hueffer K, Insley SJ, Joly DO, Kutz S, Lee DS, Chetkiewicz CLB, Lair S, Preston ND, Pruvot M, Ray JC, Reid D, Sleeman JM, Stimmelmayr R, Stephen C, Walzer C. Implications of Zoonoses From Hunting and Use of Wildlife in North American Arctic and Boreal Biomes: Pandemic Potential, Monitoring, and Mitigation. Front Public Health 2021; 9:627654. [PMID: 34026707 PMCID: PMC8131663 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.627654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has re-focused attention on mechanisms that lead to zoonotic disease spillover and spread. Commercial wildlife trade, and associated markets, are recognized mechanisms for zoonotic disease emergence, resulting in a growing global conversation around reducing human disease risks from spillover associated with hunting, trade, and consumption of wild animals. These discussions are especially relevant to people who rely on harvesting wildlife to meet nutritional, and cultural needs, including those in Arctic and boreal regions. Global policies around wildlife use and trade can impact food sovereignty and security, especially of Indigenous Peoples. We reviewed known zoonotic pathogens and current risks of transmission from wildlife (including fish) to humans in North American Arctic and boreal biomes, and evaluated the epidemic and pandemic potential of these zoonoses. We discuss future concerns, and consider monitoring and mitigation measures in these changing socio-ecological systems. While multiple zoonotic pathogens circulate in these systems, risks to humans are mostly limited to individual illness or local community outbreaks. These regions are relatively remote, subject to very cold temperatures, have relatively low wildlife, domestic animal, and pathogen diversity, and in many cases low density, including of humans. Hence, favorable conditions for emergence of novel diseases or major amplification of a spillover event are currently not present. The greatest risk to northern communities from pathogens of pandemic potential is via introduction with humans visiting from other areas. However, Arctic and boreal ecosystems are undergoing rapid changes through climate warming, habitat encroachment, and development; all of which can change host and pathogen relationships, thereby affecting the probability of the emergence of new (and re-emergence of old) zoonoses. Indigenous leadership and engagement in disease monitoring, prevention and response, is vital from the outset, and would increase the success of such efforts, as well as ensure the protection of Indigenous rights as outlined in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Partnering with northern communities and including Indigenous Knowledge Systems would improve the timeliness, and likelihood, of detecting emerging zoonotic risks, and contextualize risk assessments to the unique human-wildlife relationships present in northern biomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy O. Keatts
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Martin Robards
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Arctic Beringia Program, Fairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Sarah H. Olson
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Karsten Hueffer
- Department of Veterinary Medicine & Arctic and Northern Studies Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Stephen J. Insley
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | | | - Susan Kutz
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - David S. Lee
- Department of Wildlife and Environment, Nunavut Tunngavik Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | - Stéphane Lair
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Mathieu Pruvot
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Justina C. Ray
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Donald Reid
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jonathan M. Sleeman
- United States Geological Survey National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Raphaela Stimmelmayr
- North Slope Department of Wildlife Management, Utqiagvik, AK, United States
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Craig Stephen
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Chris Walzer
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
- Conservation Medicine Unit, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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Magouras I, Brookes VJ, Jori F, Martin A, Pfeiffer DU, Dürr S. Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: Should We Rethink the Animal-Human Interface? Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:582743. [PMID: 33195602 PMCID: PMC7642492 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.582743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Magouras
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Victoria J Brookes
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia.,Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (NSW Department of Primary Industries and Charles Sturt University), Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
| | - Ferran Jori
- UMR ASTRE (Animal, Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystémes), CIRAD-INRAE, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Angela Martin
- Department of Philosophy, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dirk Udo Pfeiffer
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Salome Dürr
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Veterinary Public Health Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Platto S, Xue T, Carafoli E. COVID19: an announced pandemic. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:799. [PMID: 32973152 PMCID: PMC7513903 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-02995-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A severe upper respiratory tract syndrome caused by the new coronavirus has now spread to the entire world as a highly contagious pandemic. The large scale explosion of the disease is conventionally traced back to January of this year in the Chinese province of Hubei, the wet markets of the principal city of Wuhan being assumed to have been the specific causative locus of the sudden explosion of the infection. A number of findings that are now coming to light show that this interpretation of the origin and history of the pandemic is overly simplified. A number of variants of the coronavirus would in principle have had the ability to initiate the pandemic well before January of this year. However, even if the COVID-19 had become, so to say, ready, conditions in the local environment would have had to prevail to induce the loss of the biodiversity's "dilution effect" that kept the virus under control, favoring its spillover from its bat reservoir to the human target. In the absence of these appropriate conditions only abortive attempts to initiate the pandemic could possibly occur: a number of them did indeed occur in China, and probably elsewhere as well. These conditions were unfortunately present at the wet marked in Wuhan at the end of last year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Platto
- China Biodiversity Conservation and Green Development Foundation, Beijing, China.
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Jianghan University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Tongtong Xue
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Jianghan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ernesto Carafoli
- Venetian Institute of molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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