Identification of an ethylene-responsive region in the promoter of a tobacco class I chitinase gene

The impact of mechanical stress on anatomy, morphology, and gene expression in Urtica dioica L

MAIN CONCLUSION

Mechanical stress induces distinct anatomical, molecular, and morphological changes in Urtica dioica, affecting trichome development, gene expression, and leaf morphology under controlled conditions The experiments were performed on common nettle, a widely known plant characterized by high variability of leaf morphology and responsiveness to mechanical touch. A specially constructed experimental device was used to study the impact of mechanical stress on Urtica dioica plants under strictly controlled parameters of the mechanical stimulus (touching) and environment in the growth chamber. The general anatomical structure of the plants that were touched was similar to that of control plants, but the shape of the internodes' cross section was different. Stress-treated plants showed a distinct four-ribbed structure. However, as the internodes progressed, the shape gradually approached a rectangular form. The epidermis of control plants included stinging, glandular and simple setulose trichomes, but plants that were touched had no stinging trichomes, and setulose trichomes accumulated more callose. Cell wall lignification occurred in the older internodes of the control plants compared to stress-treated ones. Gene analysis revealed upregulation of the expression of the UdTCH1 gene in touched plants compared to control plants. Conversely, the expression of UdERF4 and UdTCH4 was downregulated in stressed plants. These data indicate that the nettle's response to mechanical stress reaches the level of regulatory networks of gene expression. Image analysis revealed reduced leaf area, increased asymmetry and altered contours in touched leaves, especially in advanced growth stages, compared to control plants. Our results indicate that mechanical stress triggers various anatomical, molecular, and morphological changes in nettle; however, further interdisciplinary research is needed to better understand the underlying physiological mechanisms.

Defense signaling pathways in resistance to plant viruses: Crosstalk and finger pointing

Resistance to infection by plant viruses involves proteins encoded by plant resistance (R) genes, viz., nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeats (NLRs), immune receptors. These sensor NLRs are activated either directly or indirectly by viral protein effectors, in effector-triggered immunity, leading to induction of defense signaling pathways, resulting in the synthesis of numerous downstream plant effector molecules that inhibit different stages of the infection cycle, as well as the induction of cell death responses mediated by helper NLRs. Early events in this process involve recognition of the activation of the R gene response by various chaperones and the transport of these complexes to the sites of subsequent events. These events include activation of several kinase cascade pathways, and the syntheses of two master transcriptional regulators, EDS1 and NPR1, as well as the phytohormones salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene. The phytohormones, which transit from a primed, resting states to active states, regulate the remainder of the defense signaling pathways, both directly and by crosstalk with each other. This regulation results in the turnover of various suppressors of downstream events and the synthesis of various transcription factors that cooperate and/or compete to induce or suppress transcription of either other regulatory proteins, or plant effector molecules. This network of interactions results in the production of defense effectors acting alone or together with cell death in the infected region, with or without the further activation of non-specific, long-distance resistance. Here, we review the current state of knowledge regarding these processes and the components of the local responses, their interactions, regulation, and crosstalk.

Computational analysis of the AP2/ERF family in crops genome

BACKGROUND

The Apetala 2/ethylene-responsive factor family has diverse functions that enhance development and torment resistance in the plant genome. In variation, the ethylene-responsive factor (ERF) family of TF's genes is extensive in the crop genome. Generally, the plant-specific ethylene-responsive factor family may divided by the dehydration-responsive element-binding (DREB) subfamily. So, the AP2/ERF super-family demonstrated the repeated AP2 domain during growth. The sole AP2 domain function represents abiotic stress resistance. Also, the AP2 with B3 domain enhances during the replication of brassinosteroid.

OBJECTIVE

The study objective is to investigate the Apetala 2/ethylene-responsive factor family in a model organism of the Arabidopsis thaliana for comparative analysis towards Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato), Brassica juncea (Indian and Chinese mustard), Zea mays L. (Maize) and Oryza sativa (Indian and Japanese Rice). So, examinations of the large AP2/ERF super-family are mandatory to explore the Apetala 2 (AP2) family, ERF family, DREB subfamily, and RAV family involved during growth and abiotic stress stimuli in crops.

METHODS

Therefore, perform bioinformatics and computational methods to the current knowledge of the Apetala 2/ethylene-responsive factor family and their subfamilies in the crop genome. This method may be valuable for functional analysis of particular genes and their families in the plant genome.

RESULTS

Observation data provided evidence of the Apetala 2/ethylene-responsive factor (AP2/ERF) super-family and their sub-family present in Arabidopsis thaliana (Dicots) and compared with Solanum lycopersicum (Dicots), Brassica juncea (Dicots), Zea mays L. (Monocots) and Oryza sativa (Monocots). Also, remarks genes in Oryza sativa. This report upgraded the Apetala 2/ethylene-responsive factor (AP2/ERF) family in the crop genome. So, the analysis documented the conserved domain, motifs, and phylogenetic tree towards Dicots and Monocots species. Those outcomes will be valuable for future studies of the defensive Apetala 2/ethylene-responsive factor family in crops.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, the study concluded that the several species-specific TF genes in the Apetala 2/ethylene-responsive factor (AP2/ERF) family in Arabidopsis thaliana and compared with crop-species of Solanum lycopersicum, Brassica juncea, Zea mays L. and Oryza sativa. Those plant-specific genes regulate during growth and abiotic stress control in plants.

DoAP2/ERF89 activated the terpene synthase gene DoPAES in Dendrobium officinale and participated in the synthesis of β-patchoulene

Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo is a tonic plant that has both ornamental and medicinal properties. Terpenoids are significant and diverse secondary metabolites in plants, and are one of the important natural active ingredients in D. officinale. The AP2/ERF gene family plays a major role in primary and secondary metabolism. However, the AP2/ERF transcription factor family has not been identified in D. officinale, and it is unclear if it is involved in the regulation of terpenoid biosynthesis. This study identified a sesquiterpene synthetase-β-patchoulene synthase (DoPAES) using transcriptome and terpenic metabolic profile analyses. A total of 111 members of the AP2/ERF family were identified through the whole genome of D. officinale. The tissue-specific expression and gene co-expression pattern of the DoAP2/ERF family members were analyzed. The results showed that the expression of DoPAES was highly correlated with the expression of DoAP2/ERF89 and DoAP2/ERF47. The yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) assays and dual-luciferase experiments demonstrated that DoAP2/ERF89 and DoAP2/ERF47 could regulate the expression of DoPAES. The transcriptional regulatory effects were examined using homologous transient expression of DoAP2/ERF89 in protocorms of D. officinale. DoAP2/ERF89 positively regulated the biosynthesis of β-patchoulene. This study showed that DoAP2/ERF89 can bind to the promoter region of DoPAES to control its expression and further regulate the biosynthesis of β-patchoulene in D. officinale. These results provide new insights on the regulation of terpenoid biosynthesis.

Plant Promoters and Terminators for High-Precision Bioengineering

High-precision bioengineering and synthetic biology require fine-tuning gene expression at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. Gene transcription is tightly regulated by promoters and terminators. Promoters determine the timing, tissues and cells, and levels of the expression of genes. Terminators mediate transcription termination of genes and affect mRNA levels posttranscriptionally, e.g., the 3'-end processing, stability, translation efficiency, and nuclear to cytoplasmic export of mRNAs. The promoter and terminator combination affects gene expression. In the present article, we review the function and features of plant core promoters, proximal and distal promoters, and terminators, and their effects on and benchmarking strategies for regulating gene expression.

Cell death signalling is competitively but coordinately regulated by repressor-type and activator-type ethylene response factors in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants

Ethylene response factors (ERFs) comprise one of the largest transcription factor families in many plant species. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) ERF3 (NtERF3) and other ERF-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) motif-containing ERFs are known to function as transcriptional repressors. NtERF3 and several repressor-type ERFs induce cell death in tobacco leaves and are also associated with a defence response against tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). We investigated whether transcriptional activator-type NtERFs function together with NtERF3 in the defence response against TMV infection by performing transient ectopic expression, together with gene expression, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and promoter analyses. Transient overexpression of NtERF2 and NtERF4 induced cell death in tobacco leaves, albeit later than that induced by NtERF3. Fusion of the EAR motif to the C-terminal end of NtERF2 and NtERF4 abolished their cell death-inducing ability. The expression of NtERF2 and NtERF4 was upregulated at the early phase of N gene-triggered hypersensitive response (HR) against TMV infection. The cell death phenotype induced by overexpression of wild-type NtERF2 and NtERF4 was suppressed by co-expression of an EAR motif-deficient form of NtERF3. Furthermore, ChIP and promoter analyses suggested that NtERF2, NtERF3 and NtERF4 positively or negatively regulate the expression of NtERF3 by binding to its promoter region. Overall, our results revealed the cell death-inducing abilities of genes encoding activator-type NtERFs, including NtERF2 and NtERF4, suggesting that the HR-cell death signalling via the repressor-type NtERF3 is competitively but coordinately regulated by these NtERFs.

EIN2-directed histone acetylation requires EIN3-mediated positive feedback regulation in response to ethylene

Ethylene is an important phytohormone with pleotropic roles in plant growth, development, and stress responses. ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE2 (EIN2) mediates the transduction of the ethylene signal from the endoplasmic reticulum membrane to the nucleus, where its C-terminus (EIN2-C) regulates histone acetylation to mediate transcriptional regulation by EIN3. However, no direct interaction between EIN2-C and EIN3 has been detected. To determine how EIN2-C and EIN3 act together, we followed a synthetic approach and engineered a chimeric EIN2-C with EIN3 DNA-binding activity but lacking its transactivation activity (EIN2C-EIN3DB). The overexpression of EIN2C-EIN3DB in either wild-type or in the ethylene-insensitive mutant ein3-1 eil1-1 led to a partial constitutive ethylene response. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing showed that EIN2C-EIN3DB has DNA-binding activity, indicating that EIN3DB is functional in EIN2C-EIN3DB. Furthermore, native EIN3 protein levels determine EIN2C-EIN3DB binding activity and binding targets in a positive feedback loop by interacting with EIN2C-EIN3DB to form a heterodimer. Additionally, although EIN3 does not direct affect histone acetylation levels in the absence of EIN2, it is required for the ethylene-induced elevation of H3K14Ac and H3K23Ac in the presence of EIN2. Together, we reveal efficient and specific DNA-binding by dimerized EIN3 in the presence of ethylene to mediate positive feedback regulation, which is required for EIN2-directed elevation of histone acetylation to integrate into an EIN3-dependent transcriptional activation.

Molecular cloning and characterization of GhERF105, a gene contributing to the regulation of gland formation in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)

BACKGROUND

Gossypium hirsutum L. (cotton) is one of the most economically important crops in the world due to its significant source of fiber, feed, foodstuff, oil and biofuel products. However, the utilization of cottonseed was limited due to the presence of small and darkly pigmented glands that contain large amounts of gossypol, which is toxic to human beings and non-ruminant animals. To date, some progress has been made in the pigment gland formation, but the underlying molecular mechanism of its formation was still unclear.

RESULTS

In this study, we identified an AP2/ERF transcription factor named GhERF105 (GH_A12G2166), which was involved in the regulation of gland pigmentation by the comparative transcriptome analysis of the leaf of glanded and glandless plants. It encoded an ERF protein containing a converved AP2 domain which was localized in the nucleus with transcriptional activity, and showed the high expression in glanded cotton accessions that contained much gossypol. Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) against GhERF105 caused the dramatic reduction in the number of glands and significantly lowered levels of gossypol in cotton leaves. GhERF105 showed the patterns of spatiotemporal and inducible expression in the glanded plants.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that GhERF105 contributes to the pigment gland formation and gossypol biosynthesis in partial organs of glanded plant. It also provides a potential molecular basis to generate 'glandless-seed' and 'glanded-plant' cotton cultivar.

TREE1-EIN3-mediated transcriptional repression inhibits shoot growth in response to ethylene

Ethylene is an important plant hormone that regulates plant growth, in which the master transcriptionactivator EIN3 (Ethylene Insensitive 3)-mediated transcriptional activation plays vital roles. However, the EIN3-mediated transcriptional repression in ethylene response is unknown. We report here that a Transcriptional Repressor of EIN3-dependent Ethylene-response 1 (TREE1) interacts with EIN3 to regulate transcriptional repression that leads to an inhibition of shoot growth in response to ethylene. Tissue-specific transcriptome analysis showed that most of the genes are down-regulated by ethylene in shoots, and a DNA binding motif was identified that is important for this transcriptional repression. TREE1 binds to the DNA motif to repress gene expression in an EIN3-dependent manner. Genetic validation demonstrated that repression of TREE1-targeted genes leads to an inhibition of shoot growth. Overall, this work establishes a mechanism by which transcriptional repressor TREE1 interacts with EIN3 to inhibit shoot growth via transcriptional repression in response to ethylene.

A celery transcriptional repressor AgERF8 negatively modulates abscisic acid and salt tolerance

Ethylene response factors (ERFs) widely exist in plants and have been reported to be an important regulator of plant abiotic stress. Celery, a common economic vegetable of Apiaceae, contains lots of ERF transcription factors (TFs) with various functions. AP2/ERF TFs play positive or negative roles in plant growth and stress response. Here, AgERF8, a gene encoding EAR-type AP2/ERF TF, was identified. The AgERF8 mRNA accumulated in response to both abscisic acid (ABA) signaling and salt treatment. AgERF8 was proving to be a nucleus-located protein and could bind to GCC-box. The overexpression of AgERF8 in Arabidopsis repressed the transcription of downstream genes, AtBGL and AtBCH. Arabidopsis overexpressing AgERF8 gene showed inhibited root growth under ABA and NaCl treatments. AgERF8 transgenic lines showed low tolerance to ABA and salt stress than wild-type plants. Low increment in SOD and POD activities, increased accumulation of MDA, and significantly decreased plant fresh weights and chlorophyll levels were detected in AgERF8 hosting lines after treated with ABA and NaCl. Furthermore, the overexpression of AgERF8 also inhibited the levels of ascorbic acid and antioxidant-related genes (AtCAT1, AtSOD1, AtPOD, AtSOS1, AtAPX1, and AtP5CS1) expression in transgenic Arabidopsis. This finding indicated that AgERF8 negatively affected the resistance of transgenic Arabidopsis to ABA and salt stress through regulating downstream genes expression and relevant physiological changes. It will provide a potential sight to further understand the functions of ERF TFs in celery.

Structural insights into Arabidopsis ethylene response factor 96 with an extended N-terminal binding to GCC box

The phytohormone ethylene is widely involved in many developmental processes and is a crucial regulator of defense responses against biotic and abiotic stresses in plants. Ethylene-responsive element binding protein, a member of the APETALA2/ethylene response factor (AP2/ERF) superfamily, is a transcription factor that regulates stress-responsive genes by recognizing a specific cis-acting element of target DNA. A previous study showed only the NMR structure of the AP2/ERF domain of AtERF100 in complex with a GCC box DNA motif. In this report, we determined the crystal structure of AtERF96 in complex with a GCC box at atomic resolution. We analyzed the binding residues of the conserved AP2/ERF domain in the DNA recognition sequence. In addition to the AP2/ERF domain, an N-terminal α-helix of AtERF96 participates in DNA interaction in the flanking region. We also demonstrated the structure of AtERF96 EDLL motif, a unique conserved motif in the group IX of AP2/ERF family, might involve in the transactivation of defense-related genes. Our study establishes the structural basis of the AtERF96 transcription factor in complex with the GCC box, as well as the DNA binding mechanisms of the N-terminal α-helix and AP2/ERF domain.

Chromatin Regulation in the Response of Ethylene: Nuclear Events in Ethylene Signaling

Plant hormones, produced in response to environmental stimuli, regulate almost all aspects of plant growth and development. Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone that plays pleotropic roles in plant growth, plant development, fruit ripening, stress responses, and pathogen defenses. After decades of research, the key components of ethylene signaling have been identified and characterized. Although the molecular mechanisms of the sensing of ethylene signal and the transduction of ethylene signaling have been studied extensively, how chromatin influences ethylene signaling and ethylene response is a new area of research. This review describes the current understanding of how chromatin modifications, specifically histone acetylation, regulate ethylene signaling and the ethylene response.

Gene body demethylation increases expression and is associated with self-pruning during grape genome duplication

A colchicine-induced autotetraploid grapevine exhibiting potentially valuable agronomic traits for grape production and breeding, including self-pruning, was identified. This study investigated DNA methylation variation and its role in gene expression during self-pruning in the autotetraploid grapevine. We used RNA-Seq to estimate differentially expressed genes between diploid and autotetraploid grapevine shoot tips. The genes showing increases in the autotetraploid were mainly related to stress response pathways, whereas those showing decreases in the autotetraploid were related to biological metabolism and biosynthesis. Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing was performed to produce single-base methylomes for the diploid and autotetraploid grapevines. Comparison between the methylomes revealed that they were conserved in CG and CHG contexts. In the autotetraploid grapevine, hypodifferentially methylated regions (DMRs) and hyper-DMRs in the gene body increased or decreased gene expression, respectively. Our results indicated that a hypo-DMR in the ACO1 gene body increased its expression and might promote self-pruning. This study reports that hypo-DMRs in the gene body increase gene expression in plants and reveals the mechanism underlying the changes in the modifications affecting gene expression during genome duplication. Overall, our results provide valuable information for understanding the relationships between DNA methylation, gene expression, and autotetraploid breeding in grape.

Ethylene Response Factor (ERF) Family Proteins in Abiotic Stresses and CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing of ERFs for Multiple Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants: A Review

Abiotic stresses such as extreme heat, cold, drought, and salt have brought alteration in plant growth and development, threatening crop yield and quality leading to global food insecurity. Many factors plays crucial role in regulating various plant growth and developmental processes during abiotic stresses. Ethylene response factors (ERFs) are AP2/ERF superfamily proteins belonging to the largest family of transcription factors known to participate during multiple abiotic stress tolerance such as salt, drought, heat, and cold with well-conserved DNA-binding domain. Several extensive studies were conducted on many ERF family proteins in plant species through over-expression and transgenics. However, studies on ERF family proteins with negative regulatory functions are very few. In this review article, we have summarized the mechanism and role of recently studied AP2/ERF-type transcription factors in different abiotic stress responses. We have comprehensively discussed the application of advanced ground-breaking genome engineering tool, CRISPR/Cas9, to edit specific ERFs. We have also highlighted our on-going and published R&D efforts on multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing of negative regulatory genes for multiple abiotic stress responses in plant and crop models. The overall aim of this review is to highlight the importance of CRISPR/Cas9 and ERFs in developing sustainable multiple abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants.

Identification of the targets of HbEIN3/EILs in genomic wide in Hevea brasiliensis

EIN3/EILs are key regulators in ET signaling pathway. In this work, 4 members of EIN3/EILs of Hevea brasiliensis (HbEIN3/EILs) showed interaction with two F box proteins, HbEBF1 and HbEBF2. HbEIN3 located in nucleus and exhibited strong transcriptional activity. HbEIN3 was induced by ET treatment in C-serum, but not in B-serum of latex. HbEIN3/EILs bound to G-box cis-element. To globally search the potential targets of HbEIN3/EILs, genomic sequences of H. brasiliensis was re-annotated and an HCES (Hevea Cis-Elements Scanning) program was developed ( www.h-brasiliensis.com ). HCES scanning results showed that ET- and JA- responsive cis-elements distribute overlapping in gene promoters. 3146 genes containing G-box in promoters are potential targets of HbEIN3, including 41 genes involved in biosynthesis and drainage of latex, of which 7 rate-limiting genes of latex production were regulated by both ET and JA, suggesting that ET and JA signaling pathways coordinated the latex biosynthesis and drainage in H. brasiliensis. Abbreviations: ABRE: ABA responsive elements; bHLH: basic helix-loop-helix; COG: Orthologous Groups; DRE: dehydration response element; ERE: ethylene responsive element; ET: Ethylene; GO: Gene Ontology; HCES: Hevea Cis-Elements Scanning; JA: jasmonates; JRE: Jasmonate-responsive element; KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes; NR: non-redundant database; PLACE: Plant Cis-acting Regulatory DNA Elements; qRT-PCR: quantitative real-time RT-PCR.

New Insights in Transcriptional Regulation of the Ethylene Response in Arabidopsis

As any living organisms, plants must respond to a wide variety of environmental stimuli. Plant hormones regulate almost all aspects of plant growth and development. Among all the plant hormones, ethylene is the only gaseous plant hormone that plays pleiotropic roles in plant growth, plant development and stress responses. Transcription regulation is one main mechanism by which a cell orchestrates gene activity. This control allows the cell or organism to respond to a variety of intra- and extracellular signals and thus mount a response. Here we review the progress of transcription regulation in the ethylene response.

Plant Hormone Signaling Crosstalks between Biotic and Abiotic Stress Responses

In the natural environment, plants are often bombarded by a combination of abiotic (such as drought, salt, heat or cold) and biotic (necrotrophic and biotrophic pathogens) stresses simultaneously. It is critical to understand how the various response pathways to these stresses interact with one another within the plants, and where the points of crosstalk occur which switch the responses from one pathway to another. Calcium sensors are often regarded as the first line of response to external stimuli to trigger downstream signaling. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a major phytohormone regulating stress responses, and it interacts with the jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) signaling pathways to channel resources into mitigating the effects of abiotic stresses versus defending against pathogens. The signal transduction in these pathways are often carried out via GTP-binding proteins (G-proteins) which comprise of a large group of proteins that are varied in structures and functions. Deciphering the combined actions of these different signaling pathways in plants would greatly enhance the ability of breeders to develop food crops that can thrive in deteriorating environmental conditions under climate change, and that can maintain or even increase crop yield.

Ethylene signaling induces gelatinous layers with typical features of tension wood in hybrid aspen

The phytohormone ethylene impacts secondary stem growth in plants by stimulating cambial activity, xylem development and fiber over vessel formation. We report the effect of ethylene on secondary cell wall formation and the molecular connection between ethylene signaling and wood formation. We applied exogenous ethylene or its precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) to wild-type and ethylene-insensitive hybrid aspen trees (Populus tremula × tremuloides) and studied secondary cell wall anatomy, chemistry and ultrastructure. We furthermore analyzed the transcriptome (RNA Seq) after ACC application to wild-type and ethylene-insensitive trees. We demonstrate that ACC and ethylene induce gelatinous layers (G-layers) and alter the fiber cell wall cellulose microfibril angle. G-layers are tertiary wall layers rich in cellulose, typically found in tension wood of aspen trees. A vast majority of transcripts affected by ACC are downstream of ethylene perception and include a large number of transcription factors (TFs). Motif-analyses reveal potential connections between ethylene TFs (Ethylene Response Factors (ERFs), ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 3/ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3-LIKE1 (EIN3/EIL1)) and wood formation. G-layer formation upon ethylene application suggests that the increase in ethylene biosynthesis observed during tension wood formation is important for its formation. Ethylene-regulated TFs of the ERF and EIN3/EIL1 type could transmit the ethylene signal.

Consequences of a deficit in vitamin B6 biosynthesis de novo for hormone homeostasis and root development in Arabidopsis

Vitamin B(6) (pyridoxal 5'-phosphate) is an essential cofactor of many metabolic enzymes. Plants biosynthesize the vitamin de novo employing two enzymes, pyridoxine synthase1 (PDX1) and PDX2. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), there are two catalytically active paralogs of PDX1 (PDX1.1 and PDX1.3) producing the vitamin at comparable rates. Since single mutants are viable but the pdx1.1 pdx1.3 double mutant is lethal, the corresponding enzymes seem redundant. However, the single mutants exhibit substantial phenotypic differences, particularly at the level of root development, with pdx1.3 being more impaired than pdx1.1. Here, we investigate the differential regulation of PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 by identifying factors involved in their disparate phenotypes. Swapped-promoter experiments clarify the presence of distinct regulatory elements in the upstream regions of both genes. Exogenous sucrose (Suc) triggers impaired ethylene production in both mutants but is more severe in pdx1.3 than in pdx1.1. Interestingly, Suc specifically represses PDX1.1 expression, accounting for the stronger vitamin B6 deficit in pdx1.3 compared with pdx1.1. Surprisingly, Suc enhances auxin levels in pdx1.1, whereas the levels are diminished in pdx1.3. In the case of pdx1.3, the previously reported reduced meristem activity combined with the impaired ethylene and auxin levels manifest the specific root developmental defects. Moreover, it is the deficit in ethylene production and/or signaling that triggers this outcome. On the other hand, we hypothesize that it is the increased auxin content of pdx1.1 that is responsible for the root developmental defects observed therein. We conclude that PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 play partially nonredundant roles and are differentially regulated as manifested in disparate root growth impairment morphologies.

An intergenic region shared by At4g35985 and At4g35987 in Arabidopsis thaliana is a tissue specific and stress inducible bidirectional promoter analyzed in transgenic arabidopsis and tobacco plants

On chromosome 4 in the Arabidopsis genome, two neighboring genes (calmodulin methyl transferase At4g35987 and senescence associated gene At4g35985) are located in a head-to-head divergent orientation sharing a putative bidirectional promoter. This 1258 bp intergenic region contains a number of environmental stress responsive and tissue specific cis-regulatory elements. Transcript analysis of At4g35985 and At4g35987 genes by quantitative real time PCR showed tissue specific and stress inducible expression profiles. We tested the bidirectional promoter-function of the intergenic region shared by the divergent genes At4g35985 and At4g35987 using two reporter genes (GFP and GUS) in both orientations in transient tobacco protoplast and Agro-infiltration assays, as well as in stably transformed transgenic Arabidopsis and tobacco plants. In transient assays with GFP and GUS reporter genes the At4g35985 promoter (P85) showed stronger expression (about 3.5 fold) compared to the At4g35987 promoter (P87). The tissue specific as well as stress responsive functional nature of the bidirectional promoter was evaluated in independent transgenic Arabidopsis and tobacco lines. Expression of P85 activity was detected in the midrib of leaves, leaf trichomes, apical meristemic regions, throughout the root, lateral roots and flowers. The expression of P87 was observed in leaf-tip, hydathodes, apical meristem, root tips, emerging lateral root tips, root stele region and in floral tissues. The bidirectional promoter in both orientations shows differential up-regulation (2.5 to 3 fold) under salt stress. Use of such regulatory elements of bidirectional promoters showing spatial and stress inducible promoter-functions in heterologous system might be an important tool for plant biotechnology and gene stacking applications.

Genetic and cellular mechanisms regulating plant responses to necrotrophic pathogens

Necrotrophs are plant pathogens that kill host cells and proliferate on nutrients from dead or dying tissues causing devastating diseases of horticultural and agronomic crops. Their interactions with plants involve a complex network of pathogen disease factors and corresponding plant immune response regulators. Mechanisms of quantitative resistance and the major regulators intersect regardless of pathogen life style. By contrast, some plant immune responses, such as effector-triggered immunity (ETI), a major source of qualitative resistance to biotrophs, are co-opted by necrotrophs to promote disease, which highlights the disparate plant immunity systems. Advances towards understanding mechanisms and processes underlying host responses to necrotrophs are summarized.

Analysis of the cell death-inducing ability of the ethylene response factors in group VIII of the AP2/ERF family

The ethylene response factor (ERF) family is one of the largest families of plant-specific transcription factors. We have shown previously that the overexpression of the gene for NtERF3, a tobacco transcriptional repressor containing the ERF-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) motif in the C-terminal region, induces hypersensitive reaction (HR)-like cell death. Many EAR motif-containing ERFs, including NtERF3, are clustered in group VIII of the ERF family. In this study, we aimed at revealing the cell death-inducing ability of group VIII ERFs and the correlation between ERFs and HR. The results showed that many of the EAR motif-containing ERFs classified into subgroup VIII-a of Arabidopsis, rice, and tobacco had cell death-inducing ability in tobacco leaves. Seven AtERFs in subgroup VIII-b did not induce cell death; however, some ERFs in subgroup VIII-b of rice and tobacco showed cell death-inducing ability. An expression analysis of group VIII ERFs in HR-inducing tobacco suggested that the cell death-inducing ability of NtERFs was not necessarily associated with induction of HR. In addition, it was revealed that the EAR motif-containing AtERFs in subgroup II-a also showed cell death-inducing ability. The influence of sequence variation in the EAR motif on the ability to induce cell death is also discussed.

Expression of Arabidopsis SHORT INTERNODES/STYLISH family genes in auxin biosynthesis zones of aerial organs is dependent on a GCC box-like regulatory element

Auxin/indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) biosynthesis in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plays a major role in growth responses to developmental and genetic signals as well as to environmental stimuli. Knowledge of its regulation, however, remains rudimentary, and few proteins acting as transcriptional modulators of auxin biosynthesis have been identified. We have previously shown that alteration in the expression level of the SHORT INTERNODES/STYLISH (SHI/STY) family member STY1 affects IAA biosynthesis rates and IAA levels and that STY1 acts as a transcriptional activator of genes encoding auxin biosynthesis enzymes. Here, we have analyzed the upstream regulation of SHI/STY family members to gain further insight into transcriptional regulation of auxin biosynthesis. We attempted to modulate the normal expression pattern of STY1 by mutating a putative regulatory element, a GCC box, located in the proximal promoter region and conserved in most SHI/STY genes in Arabidopsis. Mutations in the GCC box abolish expression in aerial organs of the adult plant. We also show that induction of the transcriptional activator DORNRÖSCHEN-LIKE (DRNL) activates the transcription of STY1 and other SHI/STY family members and that this activation is dependent on a functional GCC box. Additionally, STY1 expression in the strong drnl-2 mutant or the drn drnl-1 puchi-1 triple mutant, carrying knockdown mutations in both DRNL and its close paralogue DRN as well as one of their closest homologs, PUCHI, was significantly reduced, suggesting that DRNL regulates STY1 during normal plant development and that several other genes might have redundant functions.

Resistance of Malus domestica fruit to Botrytis cinerea depends on endogenous ethylene biosynthesis

The plant hormone ethylene regulates fruit ripening, other developmental processes, and a subset of defense responses. Here, we show that 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase (ACS)-silenced apple (Malus domestica) fruit that express a sense construct of ACS were more susceptible to Botrytis cinerea than untransformed apple, demonstrating that ethylene strengthens fruit resistance to B. cinerea infection. Because ethylene response factors (ERFs) are known to contribute to resistance against B. cinerea via the ethylene-signaling pathway, we cloned four ERF cDNAs from fruit of M. domestica: MdERF3, -4, -5, and -6. Expression of all four MdERF mRNAs was ethylene dependent and induced by wounding or by B. cinerea infection. B. cinerea infection suppressed rapid induction of wound-related MdERF expression. MdERF3 was the only mRNA induced by wounding and B. cinerea infection in ACS-suppressed apple fruit, although its induction was reduced compared with wild-type apple. Promoter regions of all four MdERF genes were cloned and putative cis-elements were identified in each promoter. Transient expression of MdERF3 in tobacco increased expression of the GCC-box containing gene chitinase 48.

Isolation and identification of an AP2/ERF factor that binds an allelic cis-element of rice gene LRK6

Allelic expression of the rice yield-related gene, leucine-rich receptor-like kinase 6 (LRK6), in the hybrid of 93-11 (Oryza sativa L. subsp. Indica var. 93-11) and Nipponbare (O. sativa L. subsp. Japonica var. Nipponbare) is determined by allelic promoter cis-elements. Using deletion analysis of the LRK6 promoter, we identified two distinct regions that might contribute to LRK6 expression. Sequence alignment revealed differences in these LRK6 promoter regions in 93-11 and Nipponbare. One of the segments, named differential sequence of LRK6 promoter 2 (DSLP2), contains potential transcription factor binding sites. Using a yeast one-hybrid assay, we isolated an ethylene-responsive factor (ERF) protein that binds to DSLP2. Sequence analysis and a GCC-box assay showed that the ERF gene, O. sativa ERF 3 (OsERF3), which belongs to ERF subfamily class II, has a conserved ERF domain and an ERF-associated amphiphilic repression repressor motif. We used an in vivo mutation assay to identify a new motif (5′-TAA(A)GT-3′) located in DSLP2, which interacts with OsERF3. These results suggest that OsERF3, an AP2 (APETALA 2 Gene)/ERF transcription factor, binds the LRK6 promoter at this new motif, which might cause differential expression of LRK6 in the 93-11/Nipponbare hybrid.

Differential gene expression in nearly isogenic lines with QTL for partial resistance to Puccinia hordei in barley

BACKGROUND

The barley-Puccinia hordei (barley leaf rust) pathosystem is a model for investigating partial disease resistance in crop plants and genetic mapping of phenotypic resistance has identified several quantitative trait loci (QTL) for partial resistance. Reciprocal QTL-specific near-isogenic lines (QTL-NILs) have been developed that combine two QTL, Rphq2 and Rphq3, the largest effects detected in a recombinant-inbred-line (RIL) population derived from a cross between the super-susceptible line L94 and partially-resistant line Vada. The molecular mechanism underpinning partial resistance in these QTL-NILs is unknown.

RESULTS

An Agilent custom microarray consisting of 15,000 probes derived from barley consensus EST sequences was used to investigate genome-wide and QTL-specific differential expression of genes 18 hours post-inoculation (hpi) with Puccinia hordei. A total of 1,410 genes were identified as being significantly differentially expressed across the genome, of which 55 were accounted for by the genetic differences defined by QTL-NILs at Rphq2 and Rphq3. These genes were predominantly located at the QTL regions and are, therefore, positional candidates. One gene, encoding the transcriptional repressor Ethylene-Responsive Element Binding Factor 4 (HvERF4) was located outside the QTL at 71 cM on chromosome 1H, within a previously detected eQTL hotspot for defence response. The results indicate that Rphq2 or Rphq3 contains a trans-eQTL that modulates expression of HvERF4. We speculate that HvERF4 functions as an intermediate that conveys the response signal from a gene(s) contained within Rphq2 or Rphq3 to a host of down-stream defense responsive genes. Our results also reveal that barley lines with extreme or intermediate partial resistance phenotypes exhibit a profound similarity in their spectrum of Ph-responsive genes and that hormone-related signalling pathways are actively involved in response to Puccinia hordei.

CONCLUSIONS

Differential gene expression between QTL-NILs identifies genes predominantly located within the target region(s) providing both transcriptional and positional candidate genes for the QTL. Genetically mapping the differentially expressed genes relative to the QTL has the potential to discover trans-eQTL mediated regulatory relays initiated from genes within the QTL regions.

The B-3 ethylene response factor MtERF1-1 mediates resistance to a subset of root pathogens in Medicago truncatula without adversely affecting symbiosis with rhizobia

The fungal necrotrophic pathogen Rhizoctonia solani is a significant constraint to a range of crops as diverse as cereals, canola, and legumes. Despite wide-ranging germplasm screens in many of these crops, no strong genetic resistance has been identified, suggesting that alternative strategies to improve resistance are required. In this study, we characterize moderate resistance to R. solani anastomosis group 8 identified in Medicago truncatula. The activity of the ethylene- and jasmonate-responsive GCC box promoter element was associated with moderate resistance, as was the induction of the B-3 subgroup of ethylene response transcription factors (ERFs). Genes of the B-1 subgroup showed no significant response to R. solani infection. Overexpression of a B-3 ERF, MtERF1-1, in Medicago roots increased resistance to R. solani as well as an oomycete root pathogen, Phytophthora medicaginis, but not root knot nematode. These results indicate that targeting specific regulators of ethylene defense may enhance resistance to an important subset of root pathogens. We also demonstrate that overexpression of MtERF1-1 enhances disease resistance without apparent impact on nodulation in the A17 background, while overexpression in sickle reduced the hypernodulation phenotype. This suggests that under normal regulation of nodulation, enhanced resistance to root diseases can be uncoupled from symbiotic plant-microbe interactions in the same tissue and that ethylene/ERF regulation of nodule number is distinct from the defenses regulated by B-3 ERFs. Furthermore, unlike the stunted phenotype previously described for Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) ubiquitously overexpressing B-3 ERFs, overexpression of MtERF1-1 in M. truncatula roots did not show adverse effects on plant development.

Molecular cloning and characterization of the promoter for the multiple stress-inducible gene BjCHI1 from Brassica juncea

We have previously isolated a Brassica juncea cDNA encoding a novel chitinase BjCHI1 with two chitin-binding domains (Zhao and Chye in Plant Mol Biol 40:1009-1018, 1999). The expression of BjCHI1 was highly inducible by methyl jasmonate (MeJA) treatment, wounding, caterpillar feeding, and pathogenic fungal infection. These observations suggest that the promoter of BjCHI1 gene might contain specific cis-acting elements for stress responses. Here, we report the cloning and characterization of the BjCHI1 promoter. A 1,098 bp BjCHI1 genomic DNA fragment upstream of the ATG start codon was isolated by PCR walking and various constructs were made by fusing the BjCHI1 promoter or its derivatives to beta-glucuronidase reporter gene. The transgenic Arabidopsis plants showed that the BjCHI1 promoter responded to wounding and MeJA treatment, and to treatments with either NaCl or polyethyleneglycol (PEG 6000), indicating that the BjCHI1 promoter responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses. A transient gene expression system of Nicotiana benthamiana leaves was adopted for promoter deletion analysis, and the results showed that a 76 bp region from -695 to -620 in the BjCHI1 promoter was necessary for MeJA-responsive expression. Furthermore, removal of a conserved T/G-box (AACGTG) at -353 to -348 of the promoter greatly reduced the induction by MeJA. This is the first T/G-box element identified in a chitinase gene promoter. Gain-of-function analysis demonstrated that the cis-acting element present in the 76 bp region requires coupling with the T/G-box to confer full magnitude of BjCHI1 induction by MeJA.

The intergenic region of Arabidopsis thaliana cab1 and cab2 divergent genes functions as a bidirectional promoter

Genetic engineering plays a unique role in fundamental plant biology studies and in improving crop traits. These efforts often necessitate introduction and expression of multiple genes using promoters from a very limited repertoire. Current common practice of expressing multiple genes is the repeated use of the same or similar promoters. This practice causes more frequent transgene silencing due to a high degree of sequence homology and a greater chance of rearrangement among repeatedly used promoter sequences. Therefore, availability and use of natural bidirectional promoters to minimize gene silencing and achieve desirable expression pattern of transgenes is a critical issue in the field of plant genetic engineering. Here we describe the use of a single natural bidirectional promoter to drive the expression of two reporter genes in onion epidermal cells and in transgenic tobacco plants. We show that (1) the promoter drives the simultaneous expression of GUS and GFP reporter genes after transient expression and stable transformation, (2) the transcription is equally strong in both directions, (3) immediate upstream regions in each direction control transcription independently from each other, and (4) the reporter genes are expressed in leaves and stems but not in roots, as expected from the fact that the endogenous promoter controls the expression of two photosynthetic genes in Arabidopsis. Hence, use of bidirectional promoters in heterologous background provides a means to express multiple genes in transgenic plants and aids genetic engineering-based crop improvement.

Upregulation of the promoter activity of the carrot (Daucus carota) phenylalanine ammonia-lyase gene (DcPAL3) is caused by new members of the transcriptional regulatory proteins, DcERF1 and DcERF2, which bind to the GCC-box homolog and act as an activator to the DcPAL3 promoter

The phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) gene, DcPAL3, was expressed during the synthesis of anthocyanin in suspension-cultured cells of carrot (Daucus carota). There were two putative cis-elements in the DcPAL3 promoter region: the box-L and GCC-box homologs. Both of these are committed to the upregulation of promoter activity. Although box-L is known as the conserved cis-element present in the promoter region of most PAL genes of many plant species targeted by the R2R3-MYB protein, among PAL genes, the GCC-box homolog is unique to the promoter region of the DcPAL3 gene. We have isolated two proteins belonging to the ethylene-responsive element-binding factor (ERF) family, DcERF1 and DcERF2, from two different cDNA libraries prepared from anthocyanin-synthesizing cells of different cultured cell lines of carrot. The methodology employed was yeast one-hybrid screening with the GCC-box homolog as a bait. Both DcERF1 and DcERF2 bound to the GCC-box homolog sequence in vitro. Transient expression analysis showed that, in carrot protoplasts, DcERF1 was able bind to the GCC-box homolog and act as an activator of the DcPAL3 promoter. In contrast, DcERF2 itself had no ability to activate DcPAL3 promoter activity, possibly because transiently expressed DcERF2 may not be exported into the nucleus. These results suggest that DcERF1 and DcERF2 may function in different ways in committing to the upregulation of the DcPAL3 promoter activity in anthocyanin-synthesizing cells of carrot.

Differential regulation of tomato ethylene responsive factor LeERF3b, a putative repressor, and the activator Pti4 in ripening mutants and in response to environmental stresses

Ethylene responsive transcription factors (ERFs) can be grouped into different classes with either gene activator or repressor activity. We have isolated a tomato ERF cDNA clone (LeERF3b) with sequence similarity to class II (repressor class) of the ERF family, which is regulated differently from Pti4 (a tomato ERF domain-containing gene that activates other genes). LeERF3b has similarities to other tomato ERF cDNAs but the DNA or predicted amino acid sequences have significant differences. Northern analysis showed that Pti4 was highly expressed during fruit ripening, whereas LeERF3b accumulated before and declined sharply after the onset of ripening. Furthermore, Pti4 mRNA was significantly reduced in low-ethylene tomato fruit containing an ACC oxidase sense-suppression transgene and also in the ethylene insensitive mutant never ripe (Nr). By contrast, the LeERF3b mRNA was markedly increased in those fruits. Environmental stresses including drought, desiccation and low temperature increased significantly the expression level of LeERF3b, but markedly reduced the level of Pti4 mRNA. Conversely, wounding induced the accumulation of Pti4 mRNA, but had no significant effect on the level of LeERF3b. These opposing patterns of regulation of mRNA accumulation are consistent with the activator function of Pti4 and a repressor function for LeERF3b in ethylene responses.

Identification of an OsPR10a promoter region responsive to salicylic acid

Orysa sativa pathogenesis-related protein 10a (OsPR10a) was induced by pathogens, salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), ethephon, abscisic acid (ABA), and NaCl. We tried to analyze the OsPR10a promoter to investigate the transcriptional regulation of OsPR10a by SA. We demonstrated the inducibility of OsPR10a promoter by SA using transgenic Arabidopsis carrying OsPR10a:GFP as well as by transient expression assays in rice. To further identify the promoter region responsible for its induction by SA, four different deletions of the OsPR10a promoter were made, and their activities were measured by transient assays. The construct containing 687-bp OsPR10a promoter from its start codon exhibited a six-fold increase of induction compared to the control in response to SA. Mutation in the W-box like element 1 (WLE 1) between 687 and 637-bp from TGACA to TGAAA completely abolished induction of the OsPR10a promoter by SA, indicating that the WLE 1 between -687 and -637 of OsPR10a promoter is important in SA-mediated OsPR10a expression. We show for the first time that the W-box like element plays a role in SA mediated PR gene expression.

Molecular characterization of four rice genes encoding ethylene-responsive transcriptional factors and their expressions in response to biotic and abiotic stress

We isolated and identified four rice genes, OsBIERF1 to OsBIERF4 (Oryza sativa benzothiadiazole (BTH)-induced ethylene responsive transcriptional factors (ERF)) and analyzed their expressions in rice disease resistance response and under various abiotic stress conditions. The OsBIERF1-4 proteins contain conserved ERF domains, but are categorized into different classes of the previously characterized ERF proteins based on their structural organizations. OsBIERF3 and OsBIERF2 belong to Classes I and II, respectively; while OsBIRERF1 and OsBIERF4 are members of Class IV. OsBIERF3 could bind specifically to the GCC box sequence and was targeted to nucleus when transiently expressed in onion epidermis cells. Expression of OsBIERF1, OsBIERF3 and OsBIERF4 was induced by treatments with BTH and salicylic acid, chemical inducers capable of inducing disease resistance response in rice. In the BTH-treated rice seedlings, expression of OsBIERF1, OsBIERF3 and OsBIERF4 was further induced by infection with Magnaporthe grisea, the rice blast fungus, as compared with those in water-treated seedlings. OsBIERF1 and OsBIERF3 were activated in an incompatible interaction but not in compatible interaction between rice and M. grisea. Moreover, OsBIERF1, OsBIERF3 and OsBIERF4 were also up-regulated by salt, cold, drought and wounding. These results suggest that OsBIERF proteins may participate in different signaling pathways that mediate disease resistance response and stress responses to abiotic factors.

Upregulation of a tonoplast-localized cytochrome P450 during petal senescence in Petunia inflata

BACKGROUND

Gene expression in Petunia inflata petals undergoes major changes following compatible pollination. Severe flower wilting occurs reproducibly within 36 hours, providing an excellent model for investigation of petal senescence and programmed cell death. Expression of a number of genes and various enzyme activities involved in the degradation and remobilization of macromolecules have been found to be upregulated during the early stages of petal senescence.

RESULTS

By performing differential display of cDNAs during Petunia inflata petal senescence, a highly upregulated gene encoding a cytochrome P450 was identified. Analysis of the complete cDNA sequence revealed that the predicted protein is a member of the CYP74C family (CYP74C9) and is highly similar to a tomato CYP74C allene oxide synthase (AOS) that is known to be active on 9-hydroperoxides. Cloning of the petunia genomic DNA revealed an intronless gene with a promoter region that carries signals found in stress-responsive genes and potential binding sites for Myb transcription factors. Transcripts were present at detectable levels in root and stem, but were 40 times more abundant in flowers 36 hours after pollination. Ethylene and jasmonate treatment resulted in transitory increases in expression in detached flowers. A protein fusion of the CYP74C coding region to a C-terminal GFP was found to be located in the tonoplast.

CONCLUSION

Though oxylipins, particularly jasmonates, are known to be involved in stress responses, the role of other products of CYP74 enzymes is less well understood. The identification of a CYP74C family member as a highly upregulated gene during petal senescence suggests that additional products of fatty acid metabolism may play important roles during programmed cell death. In contrast to the chloroplast localization of AOS proteins in the CYP74A subfamily, GFP fusion data indicates that the petunia CYP74C9 enzyme is in the tonoplast. This result suggests that the highly similar CYP74C enzymes that have been identified in two other Solanaceous plants may also be associated with the vacuole, an organelle known to have a prominent role in programmed cell death.

Studies on transcriptional regulation of endogenous genes by ERF2 transcription factor in tobacco cells

In this study, we showed that overexpression of ethylene-responsive transcription factor (ERF) 2 activated the expression of endogenous genes that have the GCC box in their promoter region, in tobacco plants. These include not only a defense-related gene, CHN50, encoding class I basic chitinase, but also a transcriptional repressor gene, ERF3. In tobacco plants constitutively expressing ERF2:glucocorticoid receptor fusion protein, treatment with dexamethazone induced a rapid increase of ERF3 mRNA and a slow increase of CHN50 mRNA. These results suggest that an antagonistic interplay of ERF2 and ERF3 is involved in the transcriptional regulation of the class I basic chitinase genes in tobacco.

Promoter activation of pepper class II basic chitinase gene, CAChi2, and enhanced bacterial disease resistance and osmotic stress tolerance in the CAChi2-overexpressing Arabidopsis

The activation of the CAChi2 promoter as the result of bacterial infection and osmotic stresses was examined using the Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression assay. Several stress-related cis-acting elements were revealed within the upstream genomic sequence of the CAChi2 gene. In tobacco leaf tissues transiently transformed with the CAChi2 promoter-beta-glucuronidase (GUS) gene, the CAChi2 promoter was up-regulated by Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci infection. The CAChi2-GUS activation was closely related to osmotic stresses, including treatment with mannitol and NaCl. The -378 CAChi2 promoter was sufficient for the CAChi2 gene induction by salicylic acid treatment. CAChi2 overexpression in the transgenic Arabidopsis plants enhanced bacterial disease resistance against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato infection. CAChi2-overexpressing Arabidopsis plants also exhibited increased tolerance to NaCl-induced osmotic stresses during seed germination and seedling growth. CAChi2 overexpression induced the expression of the NaCl stress-responsive gene RD29A in the absence of NaCl stress. The CAChi2-overexpressing transgenic plants exhibited increased sensitivity to abscisic acid during seed germination.

Ethylene signaling mediates a maize defense response to insect herbivory

The signaling pathways that enable plants to mount defenses against insect herbivores are known to be complex. It was previously demonstrated that the insect-resistant maize (Zea mays L.) genotype Mp708 accumulates a unique defense cysteine proteinase, Mirl-CP, in response to caterpillar feeding. In this study, the role of ethylene in insect defense in Mp708 and an insect-susceptible line Tx601 was explored. Ethylene synthesis was blocked with either cobalt chloride or aminoethoxyvinylglycine. Alternatively, ethylene perception was inhibited with 1-methylcyclopropene. Blocking ethylene synthesis and perception resulted in Mp708 plants that were more susceptible to caterpillar feeding. In addition, fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) larvae that fed on inhibitor-treated Mp708 plants had signifycantly higher growth rates than those reared on untreated plants. In contrast, these responses were not significantly altered in Tx601. The ethylene synthesis and perception inhibitors also reduced the accumulation of Mirl-CP and its transcript mir1 in response to herbivory. These results indicate that ethylene is a component of the signal transduction pathway leading to defense against insect herbivory in the resistant genotype Mp708.

AtSAP18, an orthologue of human SAP18, is involved in the regulation of salt stress and mediates transcriptional repression in Arabidopsis

In yeast and mammalian systems, it is well established that transcriptional down-regulation by DNA-binding repressors involves core histone deacetylation, mediated by their interaction within a complex containing histone deacetylase (e.g. HDA1), as well as various other proteins (e.g. SIN3, SAP18, SAP30, and RbAp46). Here we identify that a Arabidopsis thaliana gene related in sequence to SAP18, designated AtSAP18, functions in transcription regulation in plants subjected to salt stress. The AtSAP18 loss- of-function mutant is more sensitive to NaCl, and is impaired in chlorophyll synthesis as compared to the wild-type. Using GST pull-down, two-hybrid, and transient transcription assays, we have characterized SAP18 and HDA1 orthologues and provide evidence that SAP18 and HDA1 function as transcriptional repressors. We further demonstrate that they associate with Ethylene-Responsive Element binding Factors (ERFs) to create a hormone-sensitive multimeric repressor complex under conditions of environmental stress. Our results indicate that AtSAP18 functions to link the HDA complex to transcriptional repressors that are bound to chromatin in a sequence-specific manner, thereby providing the specificity of signal transduction accompanying transcriptional repression under stress conditions.

Arabidopsis ERF4 is a transcriptional repressor capable of modulating ethylene and abscisic acid responses

ERFs (ethylene-responsive element binding factors) belong to a large family of plant transcription factors that are found exclusively in plants. A small subfamily of ERF proteins can act as transcriptional repressors. The Arabidopsis genome contains eight ERF repressors, namely AtERF3, AtERF4, and AtERF7 to AtERF12. Members of ERF repressors show differential expression, suggesting that they may have different function. Using a transient expression system, we demonstrated that AtERF4, AtERF7, AtERF10, AtERF11 and AtERF12 can function as transcriptional repressors. The expression of AtERF4 can be induced by ethylene, jasmonic acid, and abscisic acid (ABA). By using green fluorescent protein fusion, we demonstrated that AtEFR4 accumulated in the nuclear bodies of Arabidopsis cells. Expression of 35S:AtERF4-GFP in transgenic Arabidopsis plants conferred an ethylene-insensitive phenotype and repressed the expression of Basic Chitinase and beta-1,3-Glucanase, the GCC-box-containing genes. In comparison with wild-type plants, 35S:AtERF4-GFP transgenic plants had decreased sensitivity to ABA and were hypersensitive to sodium chloride. The expression of the ABA responsive genes, ABI2, rd29B and rab18, was decreased in the 35S:AtERF4-GFP transgenic plants. Our study provides evidence that AtERF4 is a negative regulator capable of modulating ethylene and abscisic acid responses.

The ethylene-, jasmonate-, abscisic acid- and NaCl-responsive tomato transcription factor JERF1 modulates expression of GCC box-containing genes and salt tolerance in tobacco

Ethylene responsive factors (ERFs) are important plant-specific transcription factors, some of which have been demonstrated to interact with the ethylene-responsive GCC box and the dehydration-responsive element (DRE); however, data on the roles of ERF proteins in connection with various signaling pathways are limited. In this research, we used the GCC box, an essential cis-acting element responsive to ethylene and methyl jasmonate (MeJA), as bait in a yeast one-hybrid system to isolate transcription factors from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). One of the cDNAs, which was designated Jasmonate and Ethylene Response Factor 1 (JERF1), encodes an ERF protein, containing a conserved ERF DNA-binding motif and functioning as a transcriptional activator in yeast through targeting to the nucleus in onion (Allium cepa L.) epidermal cells. Biochemical analysis revealed that JERF1 bound not only to the GCC box but also to the DRE sequence. Expression of the JERF1 gene in tomato was induced by ethylene, MeJA, abscisic acid (ABA) and salt treatment, indicating that JERF1 might act as a connector among different signal transduction pathways. Further research with transgenic JERF1 tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) plants indicated that overexpressing JERF1 activated expression of GCC box-containing genes such as osmotin, GLA, Prb-1b and CHN50 under normal growth conditions, and subsequently resulted in enhanced tolerance to salt stress, suggesting that JERF1 modulates osmotic tolerance by activation of downstream gene expression through interaction with the GCC box or DRE.

Tomato stress-responsive factor TSRF1 interacts with ethylene responsive element GCC box and regulates pathogen resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum

Ethylene responsive factors (ERFs) are important in regulating plant pathogen resistance, abiotic stress tolerance and plant development. Recent studies have greatly enlarged the ERF protein family and revealed more important roles of ERFs in plants. Here, we report our finding of a tomato ERF protein TSRF1, which is transcriptionally up-regulated by ethylene, salicylic acid, or Ralstonia solanacearum strain BJ1057 infection. Biochemical analysis indicates that TSRF1 specifically interacts in vitro with the GCC box, an element present in the promoters of many pathogenesis-related (PR) genes. Further investigation evidences that TSRF1 activates in vivo the expression of reporter beta-glucuronidase gene controlled by GCC box. More importantly, overexpressing TSRF1 in tobacco and tomato constitutively activates the expression of PR genes, and subsequently enhancing transgenic plant resistance to the bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum strain BJ1057. Therefore our investigation not only extends the functions of ERF proteins in plant resistance to R. solanacearum, but also provides further clues to understanding the mechanism of host regulatory proteins in response to the infection of pathogens.

The ethylene-responsive factor like protein 1 (CaERFLP1) of hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) interacts in vitro with both GCC and DRE/CRT sequences with different binding affinities: possible biological roles of CaERFLP1 in response to pathogen infection and high salinity conditions in transgenic tobacco plants

From a pathogen-inoculated hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Pukang) leaf EST, we identified a cDNA clone, pCaERFLP1, encoding a putative transcription factor that contains a single ERF/AP2 DNA binding domain. CaERFLP1 was most closely related to tomato LeERF2 (73%), both of which belong to the novel ERF class IV typified by the N-terminal MCGGAIL signature sequence, while it had a limited sequence identity (25-30%) with Arabidopsis AtERFs and tobacco NtERFs. Quantitative gel retardation assays revealed that bacterially expressed full-length CaERFLP1 was able to form a specific complex with both the GCC box and DRE/CRT motif, with its binding affinity for GCC being stronger than for DRE/CRT. When fused to the GAL4 DNA binding domain, the N-terminal CaERFLP1(1-37) and C-terminal CaERFLP1(198-264) mutant polypeptides could function individually as transactivators in yeast. This suggests that two separate domains of CaERFLP1 may play distinct roles in transcription activation. In particle co-bombardment experiments, CaERFLP1 activated the transcription of reporter genes containing the 4X[GCC] element in tobacco cells. In hot pepper plants, the steady-state level of CaERFLP1 mRNA was markedly induced by multiple environmental factors, such as pathogen infection, ethylene, mechanical wounding and high salinity. Furthermore, ectopic expression of CaERFLP1 in transgenic tobacco plants resulted in partially improved tolerance against the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae and salt stress (100 mM NaCl). Consistently, various defense-related genes, including GCC box-containing PR genes and the DRE/CRT-containing LTI45 (ERD10) gene, were constitutively expressed in 35S::CaERFLP1 tobacco plants. Thus, it appears that CaERFLP1 is functional in tobacco cells, where it induces the transactivation of some GCC- and DRE/CRT-genes to trigger a subset of stress response. Here, the possible biological role(s) of CaERFLP1 is discussed, especially with regard to the possibility that CaERFLP1 has multiple functions in the regulation of GCC- and DRE/CRT-mediated gene expression in hot pepper plants.

Identification of a genomic clone to ACC oxidase from papaya (Carica papaya L.) and expression studies

In this paper are presented structural analysis and expression studies of one genomic clone encoding a 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidase (ACC oxidase) from papaya. Using RT-PCR amplification of ACC oxidase cDNAs from ripe papaya, a product of 800 bp was obtained, which after sequence analysis was found to code for a protein highly homologous to ACC oxidase proteins. This PCR product was used as a probe for screening a genomic library, and two different groups of clones were obtained as indicated by restriction mapping. One clone (CPACCO-1) was selected for further study and fully sequenced. Comparison of this sequence with the PCR product and other cloned ACC oxidase genes revealed that CPACCO-1 encoded the transcript in four exons interrupted by three introns. Southern blot analysis showed one or two major bands hybridized to the PCR probe, suggesting that the ACC oxidase gene is present in one or two copies in the papaya genome. By northern blot analysis it was found that the ACC oxidase transcripts appear in the pulp earlier than in the peel, suggesting a developmental regulation. A wounding experiment revealed the highest expression of this gene by 2 h. Transcriptional regulation by ethylene could be due to the presence of a putative GCC box in the promoter region.

Molecular and biochemical characterization of VR-EILs encoding mung bean ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3-LIKE proteins

ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3 (EIN3) is a transcription factor involved in the ethylene signal transduction pathway in Arabidopsis. Two full-length cDNA clones, pVR-EIL1 and pVR-EIL2, encoding EIN3-LIKE proteins were isolated by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and by screening the cDNA library of mung bean (Vigna radiata) hypocotyls. VR-EIL1 and VR-EIL2 share 70% identity and display varying degrees of sequence conservation (39%-65%) with previously isolated EIN3 homologs from Arabidopsis, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) plants. Gel retardation assay revealed that both VR-EILs were able to interact specifically with optimal binding sequence-1, the recently identified optimal binding sequence for tobacco TEIL, with the binding of VR-EIL2 being more efficient than that of VR-EIL1. Transient expression analysis using a VR-EIL::smGFP fusion gene in onion (Allium cepa) epidermal cells indicated that the VR-EIL proteins were effectively targeted to the nucleus. The fusion protein of VR-EIL2 with GAL4 DNA-binding domain strongly activated transcription of a reporter gene in yeast cells, and an essential domain for transcription-stimulating activity was localized to the amino-terminal acidic region that consists of 50 amino acid residues. In contrast with what has been previously found in EIN3- and TEIL-overexpressing Arabidopsis plants, transgenic tobacco seedlings expressing the VR-EIL genes under the control of cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter did not exhibit a constitutive triple response. Instead, they displayed a markedly enhanced proliferation of root hairs, one of the typical ethylene response phenotypes, and increased sensitivity to exogenous ethylene. In addition, the pathogenesis-related (PR) genes encoding beta-1,3-glucanase, osmotin, and PR1 were constitutively expressed in 35S::VR-EIL lines without added ethylene, and were hyperinduced in response to ethylene treatment. These results indicate that VR-EILs are functional in tobacco cells, thereby effectively transactivating the GCC-box-containing PR genes and enhancing sensitivity to ethylene. The possible physiological role of VR-EILs is discussed in the light of the suggestion that they are active components of the ethylene-signaling pathway and their heterologous expressions constitutively turn on a subset of ethylene responses in tobacco plants.

A role for the GCC-box in jasmonate-mediated activation of the PDF1.2 gene of Arabidopsis

The PDF1.2 gene of Arabidopsis encoding a plant defensin is commonly used as a marker for characterization of the jasmonate-dependent defense responses. Here, using PDF1.2 promoter-deletion lines linked to the beta-glucoronidase-reporter gene, we examined putative promoter elements associated with jasmonate-responsive expression of this gene. Using stably transformed plants, we first characterized the extended promoter region that positively regulates basal expression from the PDF1.2 promoter. Second, using promoter deletion constructs including one from which the GCC-box region was deleted, we observed a substantially lower response to jasmonate than lines carrying this motif. In addition, point mutations introduced into the core GCC-box sequence substantially reduced jasmonate responsiveness, whereas addition of a 20-nucleotide-long promoter element carrying the core GCC-box and flanking nucleotides provided jasmonate responsiveness to a 35S minimal promoter. Taken together, these results indicated that the GCC-box plays a key role in conferring jasmonate responsiveness to the PDF1.2 promoter. However, deletion or specific mutations introduced into the core GCC-box did not completely abolish the jasmonate responsiveness of the promoter, suggesting that the other promoter elements lying downstream from the GCC-box region may also contribute to jasmonate responsiveness. In other experiments, we identified a jasmonate- and pathogen-responsive ethylene response factor transcription factor, AtERF2, which when overexpressed in transgenic Arabidopsis plants activated transcription from the PDF1.2, Thi2.1, and PR4 (basic chitinase) genes, all of which contain a GCC-box sequence in their promoters. Our results suggest that in addition to their roles in regulating ethylene-mediated gene expression, ethylene response factors also appear to play important roles in regulating jasmonate-responsive gene expression, possibly via interaction with the GCC-box.

Functional analysis of tomato Pti4 in Arabidopsis

Pti4 is a tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) transcription factor that belongs to the ERF (ethylene-responsive element binding factor) family of proteins. It interacts with the Pto kinase in tomato, which confers resistance to the Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato pathogen that causes bacterial speck disease. To study the function of Pti4, transgenic Arabidopsis plants were generated that expressed tomato Pti4 driven by the strong constitutive promoters, cauliflower mosaic virus 35S and tCUP. Global gene expression analysis by Affimetric GeneChip indicated that expression of Pti4 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants induced the expression of GCC box-containing PR genes. We also demonstrated that Pti4 enhanced GCC box-mediated transcription of a reporter gene. The data suggests that tomato Pti4 could act as a transcriptional activator to regulate expression of GCC box-containing genes. Furthermore, we show that the expression of tomato Pti4 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants produced a phenotype similar to that seen in plants treated with ethylene, thus providing evidence that the Pti4 gene is involved in the regulation of a subset of ethylene-responsive genes containing the GCC box.

A calmodulin binding protein from Arabidopsis is induced by ethylene and contains a DNA-binding motif

Calmodulin (CaM), a key calcium sensor in all eukaryotes, regulates diverse cellular processes by interacting with other proteins. To isolate CaM binding proteins involved in ethylene signal transduction, we screened an expression library prepared from ethylene-treated Arabidopsis seedlings with 35S-labeled CaM. A cDNA clone, EICBP (Ethylene-Induced CaM Binding Protein), encoding a protein that interacts with activated CaM was isolated in this screening. The CaM binding domain in EICBP was mapped to the C-terminus of the protein. These results indicate that calcium, through CaM, could regulate the activity of EICBP. The EICBP is expressed in different tissues and its expression in seedlings is induced by ethylene. The EICBP contains, in addition to a CaM binding domain, several features that are typical of transcription factors. These include a DNA-binding domain at the N terminus, an acidic region at the C terminus, and nuclear localization signals. In database searches a partial cDNA (CG-1) encoding a DNA-binding motif from parsley and an ethylene up-regulated partial cDNA from tomato (ER66) showed significant similarity to EICBP. In addition, five hypothetical proteins in the Arabidopsis genome also showed a very high sequence similarity with EICBP, indicating that there are several EICBP-related proteins in Arabidopsis. The structural features of EICBP are conserved in all EICBP-related proteins in Arabidopsis, suggesting that they may constitute a new family of DNA binding proteins and are likely to be involved in modulating gene expression in the presence of ethylene.