Ultrastructure of the neurosecretory system of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say). II. Pathways of axonal secretion transport and innervation of neurosecretory cells

Localization in the nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster of a C-terminus anti-peptide antibody to a cloned Drosophila muscarinic acetylcholine receptor

Localization in the nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster of a cloned Drosophila muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) was investigated using a polyclonal antiserum raised against a peptide corresponding to the predicted receptor carboxyl terminal domain. Immunocytochemical studies on fly sections indicated that the product of the Dm1 mAChR gene was localized in the antennal lobes and in other regions of the brain and thoracic nervous system. Intense staining in the glomeruli of the antennal lobes, the region of the nervous system containing terminals of antennal olfactory sensory neurones and mechanosensory neurones, indicates possible roles for this mAChR gene product in the processing of olfactory and mechanosensory signals in the fly. The staining of a discrete group of neurosecretory cells in the pars intercerebralis of the brain indicates a possible new role for this mAChR in the regulation of neurosecretion. Very little staining is detected in the thoracic nervous system.

Vasopressin-immunoreactive neurons and neurohemal systems in cockroaches and mantids

Vasopressin-like neuropeptides of insects are of special interest because of their possible function as hormones and neuromodulators. Therefore, this study was undertaken by using whole-mount immunofluorescent staining by two antisera that recognize different types of vasopressin-like immunoreactive groups of neurons in the cockroaches Periplaneta americana, Leucophaea maderae, Nauphoeta cinerea, Diploptera punctata, and Blaberus discoidalis and in the mantids Litaneuria minor and Tenodera aridifolia sinensis. Using an antiserum to Arg/vasopressin, only two cells, the paired ventral paramedian (PVP) neurons, were immunostained in the central nervous system (CNS) of the cockroaches. These cells are located in the subesophageal ganglion, project throughout the CNS, and appear to be neurosecretory. Their varicose collaterals extend into the dorsal (motor) neuropil of the segmental ganglia, and this neuropil may be the principal site of the release of their neurosecretion. The PVP neurons were also stained by an antiserum to Lys/vasopressin; in addition, this antiserum stained several other groups of neurons, most of which appeared to be neurosecretory. Two pairs of Lys/vasopressin-immunoreactive cells are similar to the PVP neurons in that they are located in the subesophageal ganglion, extend through the ventral nerve cord, have collaterals in the dorsal neuropil of the segmental ganglia, and appear to be neurosecretory within the CNS. In addition, midventral and anteroventral clusters of Lys/vasopressin-immunoreactive neurosecretory neurons in the subesophageal ganglion project neurohemal release sites on the corpora allata. Other types of Lys/vasopressin-immunoreactive neurons include median and lateral neurosecretory cells of the protocerebrum and neurosecretory cells in the tritocerebrum, all of which project to the corpora cardiaca. In the abdominal ganglia there are posterolateral clusters of Lys/vasopressin neurosecretory neurons, and these cells extend to neurohemal release sites on the transverse and lateral cardiac nerves. In mantids the anti-Arg/vasopressin and anti-Lys/vasopressin antisera stained most of the same groups of neurons that these antisera recognized in cockroaches. The results of this study suggest that there are two or more vasopressin-like peptides in cockroaches and mantids and that these peptides may be released either as hormones in the blood or as neurosecretions within the CNS. Their function(s) in these insects remains to be determined.

Axonal projections within the brain-retrocerebral complex of the cricket, Teleogryllus commodus

The cerebral origins and axonal trajectories of neurons projecting to the retrocerebral complex of the cricket, Teleogryllus commodus, were examined in silver-intensified nickel preparations. Spatially separate groups of somata in the pars intercerebralis (PI) and in the pars lateralis (PL), commonly accepted as neurosecretory loci, were found to give rise to axons which terminate in the nervus corporis allati 2, the corpus allatum, or the corpus cardiacum. Additional findings demonstrated a distinct group of somata from the PI whose axons run in the esophageal nerve (stomatogastric nervous system), nine somata in the subesophageal ganglion with axons projecting into the nervus corporis allati 2, and also a small cluster of tritocerebral perikarya with axons terminating in the corpus cardiacum. Somata residing in the PI and PL were found to be compartmentally organized based upon the retrocerebral destinations of their axons. Possible functional consequences of these results with respect to the insect neurosecretory system are discussed.

Metamorphosis of the cerebral neuroendocrine system in the moth Manduca sexta

We have examined the morphology and neuronal elements of the cerebral neuroendocrine system in the larval, pupal, and adult stages of the moth Manduca sexta with a variety of neuroanatomical techniques. The larval brain contains several discrete groups of neurosecretory and non-neurosecretory cells that project to the associated neurohemal organs (the corpora cardiaca-allata complex, or CC-CA) and to a variety of more peripheral structures. A previously undescribed set of cells in the subesophageal ganglion have also been found that project out the neurosecretory nerves. During metamorphosis, the cerebral neuroendocrine system undergoes a dramatic structural reorganization, including the reduction or loss of many larval nerves and a repositioning of the cell groups and their dendritic fields. Despite these changes, most of its central elements are retained. In addition, by the completion of adult development a new cluster of cells can be found on either side of the dorsal midline of the brain. We have also determined the relative contributions of the different cell groups to the moth neuroendocrine system by intracellular iontophoresis of dye into individual cells. Within the dorsal protocerebrum, five separate morphological types of cells can be recognized, each with a distinctive pattern of dendritic arborization in the brain and terminal neurohemal processes that project to the CC, the CA, the aorta, or to a combination of these regions. The large intrinsic cells of the CC have also been filled, revealing an unusual set of morphological features in these peripheral neurosecretory cells.

Adipokinetic hormone-immunoreactive peptide in the endocrine and central nervous system of several insect species: a comparative immunocytochemical approach

The distribution of intrinsic glandular cells containing adipokinetic hormone (AKH)-like material in the corpora cardiaca (CC) and the occurrence of immunoreactive neurons in the nervous system in 19 species belonging to nine insect orders was studied by means of an immunocytochemical method (peroxidase-antiperoxidase), with antisera raised against an AKH analogue [( Tyr1]-AKH). The CC gland cells in Locusta migratoria migratorioides and Schistocerca americana gregaria were strongly immunoreactive. Those in other orders showed less or no immunoreactivity indicating that AKH has a very restricted distribution. Neurons containing immunoreactive material were found in the brain and ventral ganglia in all species investigated. As the specificity of the antiserum has not been determined, it is not known whether this peptide is identical to AKH. Considering the distribution of their axons, these neurons may be involved with one or more of the following functions: (1) nervous communication within the central nervous system; (2) communication with the stomatogastric nervous system; (3) possible release of peptide from the CC; (4) release of neuropeptide in or from the corpus allatum. A combination of these features has been found in only a few of the species investigated. The immunocytochemical study demonstrated significant differences among species belonging to Apterygota, Hemi-, and Holometabola in the number of neurons, the length and degree of branching of their axon, and the amount of immunoreactive peptide stored therein.

Immunocytochemical localization of peptidergic neurons and neurosecretory cells in the neuro-endocrine system of the Colorado potato beetle with antisera to vertebrate regulatory peptides

A large number of antisera to regulatory vertebrate peptides was tested immunocytochemically on the nervous system of the Colorado potato beetle to further characterize the peptidergic cells of the neuro-endocrine system and to reveal cells participating in endocrine control mechanisms. Neurons, neurosecretory cells, axons and axon terminals were revealed by antisera to ACTH, gastrin, CCK, alpha-endorphin, beta-endorphin, gamma 1-MSH, insulin, motilin, human calcitonin, growth hormone, somatostatin, CRF, ovine prolactin and rat prolactin. Together with previously described results these findings demonstrate that at least 19 different peptidergic cell types are present in the Colorado potato beetle. Several of these cell types are identical with the known neurosecretory cells, while others have not been identified before. The functions of the immunoreactive neurons are as yet unclear, although in two cases the localization of these cells gives some clues. Thus the lateral neurosecretory cells, which are immunoreactive with antisera to beta-endorphin and ovine prolactin, may regulate corpus allatum activity, whereas a CRF immunoreactive substance seems to be used as neurotransmitter by antennal receptors. These immunocytochemical findings do not imply that the immunoreactive substances are evolutionarily related to the vertebrate peptides to which the antisera were raised. It is postulated that if the part of the substance recognized by a certain antiserum is functionally important for the insect, which should be so if the insect peptide is evolutionarily related to its vertebrate homologue, the antiserum should reveal homologous cells in different insect species. The consequence of this hypothesis is, that if an antiserum does not reveal homologous neurons in different insect species, the immunologically demonstrated substance is probably of little physiological importance, and will not be related evolutionarily to the vertebrate analogue. The positive immunocytochemical results in the Colorado potato beetle are discussed in relation to these considerations.

Innervation of the corpus allatum in the Colorado potato beetle as revealed by retrograde diffusion with horseradish peroxidase

The application of horseradish peroxidase for tracing the cells innervating the corpus allatum in adult Leptinotarsa decemlineata, using simple instruments, is described. The corpus allatum in this insect appears to be innervated by a single group of about eight cells. The size and position of these cells indicate that they belong to the L-type lateral neurosecretory cells. The axons from each of these cells split into two pathways: one pathway arborizes extensively in the dorsal part of the brain adjacent to the pars intercerebralis whereas the other passes unbranched through the neuropil of the protocerebral lobe and corpus cardiacum into the corpus allatum. Additional cell groups in the pars intercerebralis which were stained when the corpus cardiacum was also contaminated with horseradish peroxidase are illustrated. The possible involvement of the lateral neurosecretory cells in the regulation of juvenile hormone biosynthesis is discussed.

Ultrastructure of two opposite types of abdominal perisympathetic organs in the heteropteran, Roscius elongatus Stål (Pyrrhocoridae). Abundant release of neurosecretory product by intraganglionic organs

The ultrastructural study of perisympathetic organs (POs) in Roscius elongatus revealed the existence of two opposite neurohemal structures. Distal POs formed a network at the end of each of the first pro-, meso-, metathoracic, and abdominal nerves. They display a thin branched structure favoring contact between axon endings and hemolymph. The distal metathoracic POs contained two types of neurosecretory ending, and the distal abdominal POs three types. On the contrary, "subjacent" POs, strangely located laterally in the abdominal area of the ganglionic nerve mass, display a dense compact structure, containing only one type of neurosecretory ending. These characters demonstrate that the "subjacent" POs, earlier classified as transverse POs because they are symmetrically located, are in fact median POs. In transverse POs, signs of extrusion by exocytosis were observed only in one type of neurosecretory ending. In "subjacent" POs unusual pictures were found indicating abundant release by single or compound exocytosis. Such pictures prove that "subjacent" POs have a neurohemal function despite their dense structure and internal localization. Physiological implications of these opposite structures are discussed.

Anatomy and electrophysiology of individual neurosecretory cells of an insect brain

The structure and electrophysiological properties of individual neurosecretory cells of the pars intercerebralis, medial neurosecretory cells (MNSCs), in the brain of an insect, the cricket Teleogryllus commodus, were investigated by means of intracellular injections of the dye Lucifer Yellow and electrophysiological recordings. Action potentials recorded from these cells were of long duration, 8-50 msec. In the pars intercerebralis there are both neurosecretory cells with axons that join one of the tracts of the nervi corpori cardiaci I (NCC I) and cells without an axon or collateral that leaves the brain, local neurosecretory cells. MNSCs with axons that join NCC I and terminate in the anterior corpus cardiacum arborize extensively in the protocerebrum and to a lesser degree in the deutocerebrum. Other MNSCs have axons that pass through the corpus cardiacum and hypocerebral ganglion and join one of the oesophageal nerves. These MNSCs have sparse collateral arborizations in the protocerebrum but do have extensive terminal arborizations in the tritocerebrum. This type of cell is dye-coupled to other MNSCs. Among the local MNSCs, some have an unusual loop shape. These cells branch extensively in the protocerebrum and have massive terminal arborizations in a posterior ventromedial region of the brain. Both the long curved axons of the loop-shaped cells and their ventromedial branches are of large diameter, suitable for storage of neurosecretory material.

The neurosecretory system of the adult Melanogryllus desertus Pall. (Orthoptera, Gryllidae). I. Ultrastructural study of the median neurosecretory cells in the brain

Based on the nature of their granules, eight prinicipal types of neurons, six of which are thought to be neurosecretory, are recognized in the median neurosecretory cell group of the brain of Melanogryllus desertus. Most of the neurosecretory cells contain granules with diameters of 200-300 nm. In a few the granules are smaller with diameters varying from 60-100 nm. Most of the cells have well developed Golgi areas and dense bodies of different sizes. Dense bodies are closely associated the neurosecretory granules. Accumulations of electron-dense granular material occur in expanded cisterns of endoplasmic reticulum, particularly in type-I cells.

Anatomy and ultrastructure of the axons and terminals of neurons R3-R14 in Aplysia

Using light and electron microscopy and autoradiography, we have traced the axons of neurons R3-R14 in the parietovisceral ganglion (PVG) of Aplysia to terminal fields associated with vascular tissue. The axons are identified by their large size (15-30 micrometer diameter), extensive glial infolding, characteristic dense core vesicles (DCV; approximately 180 nm diameter), and specific, rapid uptake of 3H-glycine. Each neuron in this homogeneous group sends an axon via the branchial nerve to the pericardial region surrounding the junction of the efferent gill vein and the heart. R14 also sends axons to major arteries near the PVG. The R3-R14 axons branch extensively; we estimate that there are at least several hundred per cell. Branches along axons in the branchial nerve exit the nerve, subdivide, and end blindly in the sheath which is bathed by hemolymph. Similar blind endings from R3R14 occur in the sheath of the PVG (Coggeshall, '67). Axonal branches in the pericardial region and the special R14 axons in the arterial walls form both varicose endings near and terminals in contact with vasvular smooth muscle. All R3-R14 endings are free of glia, packed with DCV, show occasional omega-shaped profiles and rapidly take up 3H-glycine. R3-R14 manufacture specific low molecular weight peptides (Gainer and Wollberg, '74), and both the cell bodies (Iliffe et al., '77) and the germinals contain unusually high concentrations of glycine. The presence of peptides as putative neurohormones and sheath endings (neurohormonal release areas) are consistent with R3-R14 being neurosecretory (Coggeshall et al., '66). While glycine could not be a circulating hormone due to its high circulating levels (Iliffe et al., '77), glycine could act as a local chemical messenger between R3-R14 and smooth muscle. The terminal morphology of R3-R14 is consistent with these neurons having both synaptic-type and neurosecretory-type functions.

Ultrastructural analysis of the action of reserpine on the brain neuroendocrine system of the wax moth, Galleria mellonella L., Lepidoptera

This study concerns the influence of reserpine on the fine structure of peptidergic neurosecretory cells in the pars intercerebralis of Galleria mellonella, and of neurons containing smaller dense-cored vesicles (presumed to be aminergic) localized in the same area of the brain. The drug, administered in doses of 125 microgram and 250 microgram per g of insect body weight, reduces both the amount and the electron opacity of the dense-cored vesicles with a diameter of 60--80 nm in the neuronal perikarya as well as their terminals. Simultaneously, this treatment evokes an abnormal accumulation of secretory granules within the perikarya of peptidergic neurosecretory cells belonging to three types. This accumulation of secretory material is followed by some changes in the fine structure of these cells. One (fourth) type of neurosecretory cells seems to be insensitive to reserpine action. Participation of the aminergic system in the regulation of the secretory activity of some populations of peptidergic neurosecretory neurons of the insect brain is postulated.

[Information transmission by means of neurosecretory peptides as mediators]

Morphological indications and new experimental results demonstrate that neurosecretory peptides or low-molecular proteins, respectively, appear to effect as mediators in information transmission. They are acting as releasers triggering specific behavior programs in the nervous system or as modulators in the regulation of different functions. This can be observed in different groups of the animal kingdom including mammals and man as well as different levels of organization or systems. Some of such facts at behavior level, concerning regulation of organ function and finally at cellular level of distinct single neurons are discussed.