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Łukowiak M. Utilizing sponge spicules in taxonomic, ecological and environmental reconstructions: a review. PeerJ 2021; 8:e10601. [PMID: 33384908 PMCID: PMC7751429 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Most sponges produce skeletons formed by spicules, structural elements that develop in a wide variety of sizes and tridimensional shapes. The morphologies of spicules are often unique to clade- or even species-level taxa which makes them particularly useful in taxonomic assignments. When dead sponge bodies disintegrate, spicules become incorporated into sediments and sometimes accumulate into enormous agglomerations called spicule mats or beds, or fossilize to form special type of rocks called the spiculites. The record of fossil and subfossil sponge spicules is extraordinarily rich and often serves as a basis for far-reaching reconstructions of sponge communities, though spicules are also bearers of significant ecological and environmental information. Specific requirements and preferences of sponges can be used to interpret the environment in which they lived, and reconstruct oscillations in water depths, pH, temperatures, and other parameters, providing snapshots of past climate conditions. In turn, the silicon isotope compositions in spicules (δ30Si) are being increasingly often used to estimate the level of silicic acid in the marine settings throughout the geological history, which enables to reconstruct the past silica cycle and ocean circulation. This contribution provides a review of the use of sponge spicules in reconstructions of sponge communities, their ecology, and environments, and aims to detect the pertinent gaps in their utilization. Even though spicules are well known for their significance as bearers of taxonomic, ecological, and environmental data, their potential remains to be fully exploited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Łukowiak
- Department of Environmental Paleobiology, Institute of Paleobiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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2
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Schoeppler V, Reich E, Vacelet J, Rosenthal M, Pacureanu A, Rack A, Zaslansky P, Zolotoyabko E, Zlotnikov I. Shaping highly regular glass architectures: A lesson from nature. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2017; 3:eaao2047. [PMID: 29057327 PMCID: PMC5647122 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aao2047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Demospongiae is a class of marine sponges that mineralize skeletal elements, the glass spicules, made of amorphous silica. The spicules exhibit a diversity of highly regular three-dimensional branched morphologies that are a paradigm example of symmetry in biological systems. Current glass shaping technology requires treatment at high temperatures. In this context, the mechanism by which glass architectures are formed by living organisms remains a mystery. We uncover the principles of spicule morphogenesis. During spicule formation, the process of silica deposition is templated by an organic filament. It is composed of enzymatically active proteins arranged in a mesoscopic hexagonal crystal-like structure. In analogy to synthetic inorganic nanocrystals that show high spatial regularity, we demonstrate that the branching of the filament follows specific crystallographic directions of the protein lattice. In correlation with the symmetry of the lattice, filament branching determines the highly regular morphology of the spicules on the macroscale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Schoeppler
- B CUBE–Center for Molecular Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Elke Reich
- B CUBE–Center for Molecular Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jean Vacelet
- IMBE (Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d’Écologie marine et continentale), CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Université d’Avignon, IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement), Station Marine d’Endoume, Marseille, France
| | | | | | - Alexander Rack
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France
| | - Paul Zaslansky
- Julius Wolff Institute for Biomechanics and Musculoskeletal Regeneration, Berlin, Germany
| | - Emil Zolotoyabko
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Igor Zlotnikov
- B CUBE–Center for Molecular Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Corresponding author.
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3
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Werner P, Blumtritt H, Natalio F. Organic crystal lattices in the axial filament of silica spicules of Demospongiae. J Struct Biol 2017; 198:186-195. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2016] [Revised: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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4
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Annenkov VV, Danilovtseva EN. Spiculogenesis in the siliceous sponge Lubomirskia baicalensis studied with fluorescent staining. J Struct Biol 2016; 194:29-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2016.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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5
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Common genetic denominators for Ca++-based skeleton in Metazoa: role of osteoclast-stimulating factor and of carbonic anhydrase in a calcareous sponge. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34617. [PMID: 22506035 PMCID: PMC3323548 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Calcium-based matrices serve predominantly as inorganic, hard skeletal systems in Metazoa from calcareous sponges [phylum Porifera; class Calcarea] to proto- and deuterostomian multicellular animals. The calcareous sponges form their skeletal elements, the spicules, from amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC). Treatment of spicules from Sycon raphanus with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) results in the disintegration of the ACC in those skeletal elements. Until now a distinct protein/enzyme involved in ACC metabolism could not been identified in those animals. We applied the technique of phage display combinatorial libraries to identify oligopeptides that bind to NaOCl-treated spicules: those oligopeptides allowed us to detect proteins that bind to those spicules. Two molecules have been identified, the (putative) enzyme carbonic anhydrase and the (putative) osteoclast-stimulating factor (OSTF), that are involved in the catabolism of ACC. The complete cDNAs were isolated and the recombinant proteins were prepared to raise antibodies. In turn, immunofluorescence staining of tissue slices and qPCR analyses have been performed. The data show that sponges, cultivated under standard condition (10 mM CaCl2) show low levels of transcripts/proteins for carbonic anhydrase or OSTF, compared to those animals that had been cultivated under Ca2+-depletion condition (1 mM CaCl2). Our data identify with the carbonic anhydrase and the OSTF the first two molecules which remain conserved in cells, potentially involved in Ca-based skeletal dissolution, from sponges (sclerocytes) to human (osteoclast).
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6
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Demadis KD, Somara M, Mavredaki E. Additive-Driven Dissolution Enhancement of Colloidal Silica. 3. Fluorine-Containing Additives. Ind Eng Chem Res 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/ie202806m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos D. Demadis
- Crystal Engineering,
Growth and Design Laboratory,
Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes Campus, Heraklion, Crete, GR-71003, Greece
| | - Maria Somara
- Crystal Engineering,
Growth and Design Laboratory,
Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes Campus, Heraklion, Crete, GR-71003, Greece
| | - Eleftheria Mavredaki
- Crystal Engineering,
Growth and Design Laboratory,
Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes Campus, Heraklion, Crete, GR-71003, Greece
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The largest Bio-Silica Structure on Earth: The Giant Basal Spicule from the Deep-Sea Glass Sponge Monorhaphis chuni. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2011; 2011:540987. [PMID: 21941585 PMCID: PMC3166767 DOI: 10.1155/2011/540987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The depth of the ocean is plentifully populated with a highly diverse fauna and flora, from where the Challenger expedition (1873-1876) treasured up a rich collection of vitreous sponges [Hexactinellida]. They have been described by Schulze and represent the phylogenetically oldest class of siliceous sponges [phylum Porifera]; they are eye-catching because of their distinct body plan, which relies on a filigree skeleton. It is constructed by an array of morphologically determined elements, the spicules. Later, during the German Deep Sea Expedition "Valdivia" (1898-1899), Schulze could describe the largest siliceous hexactinellid sponge on Earth, the up to 3 m high Monorhaphis chuni, which develops the equally largest bio-silica structures, the giant basal spicules (3 m × 10 mm). With such spicules as a model, basic knowledge on the morphology, formation, and development of the skeletal elements could be elaborated. Spicules are formed by a proteinaceous scaffold which mediates the formation of siliceous lamellae in which the proteins are encased. Up to eight hundred 5 to 10 μm thick lamellae can be concentrically arranged around an axial canal. The silica matrix is composed of almost pure silicon and oxygen, providing it with unusual optophysical properties that are superior to those of man-made waveguides. Experiments indicated that the spicules function in vivo as a nonocular photoreception system. In addition, the spicules have exceptional mechanical properties, combining mechanical stability with strength and stiffness. Like demosponges the hexactinellids synthesize their silica enzymatically, via the enzyme silicatein. All these basic insights will surely contribute also to a further applied utilization and exploration of bio-silica in material/medical science.
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8
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Comments on a skeleton design paradigm for a demosponge. J Struct Biol 2011; 175:415-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2011.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2011] [Revised: 05/03/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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9
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The Unique Invention of the Siliceous Sponges: Their Enzymatically Made Bio-Silica Skeleton. MOLECULAR BIOMINERALIZATION 2011; 52:251-81. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-21230-7_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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10
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Ehrlich H, Demadis KD, Pokrovsky OS, Koutsoukos PG. Modern Views on Desilicification: Biosilica and Abiotic Silica Dissolution in Natural and Artificial Environments. Chem Rev 2010; 110:4656-89. [DOI: 10.1021/cr900334y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Ehrlich
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Dresden University of Technology, D-01069 Dresden, Germany, Crystal Engineering, Growth and Design Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes Campus, GR-71003 Heraklion, Crete, Greece, Laboratory of Mechanisms and Transfer in Geology, Observatory Midi-Pyrenees (OMP), UMR 5563, CNRS, 14 Avenue Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France, and FORTH-ICEHT and Laboratory of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
| | - Konstantinos D. Demadis
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Dresden University of Technology, D-01069 Dresden, Germany, Crystal Engineering, Growth and Design Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes Campus, GR-71003 Heraklion, Crete, Greece, Laboratory of Mechanisms and Transfer in Geology, Observatory Midi-Pyrenees (OMP), UMR 5563, CNRS, 14 Avenue Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France, and FORTH-ICEHT and Laboratory of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
| | - Oleg S. Pokrovsky
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Dresden University of Technology, D-01069 Dresden, Germany, Crystal Engineering, Growth and Design Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes Campus, GR-71003 Heraklion, Crete, Greece, Laboratory of Mechanisms and Transfer in Geology, Observatory Midi-Pyrenees (OMP), UMR 5563, CNRS, 14 Avenue Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France, and FORTH-ICEHT and Laboratory of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
| | - Petros G. Koutsoukos
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Dresden University of Technology, D-01069 Dresden, Germany, Crystal Engineering, Growth and Design Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes Campus, GR-71003 Heraklion, Crete, Greece, Laboratory of Mechanisms and Transfer in Geology, Observatory Midi-Pyrenees (OMP), UMR 5563, CNRS, 14 Avenue Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France, and FORTH-ICEHT and Laboratory of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
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11
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Müller WEG, Wang X, Schröder HC, Korzhev M, Grebenjuk VA, Markl JS, Jochum KP, Pisignano D, Wiens M. A cryptochrome-based photosensory system in the siliceous sponge Suberites domuncula (Demospongiae). FEBS J 2010; 277:1182-201. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07552.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Armirotti A, Damonte G, Pozzolini M, Mussino F, Cerrano C, Salis A, Benatti U, Giovine M. Primary Structure and Post-Translational Modifications of Silicatein Beta from the Marine Sponge Petrosia ficiformis (Poiret, 1789). J Proteome Res 2009; 8:3995-4004. [DOI: 10.1021/pr900342y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Armirotti
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Gianluca Damonte
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Marina Pozzolini
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Francesca Mussino
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Carlo Cerrano
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Annalisa Salis
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Umberto Benatti
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Marco Giovine
- Centro Biotecnologie Avanzate, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132 Genova, Italy, Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, Viale Benedetto XV, 7 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genova, Italy, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Biochimica, Viale Benedetto XV, 1 16132 Genova, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
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13
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Wang X, Schröder HC, Müller WEG. Giant siliceous spicules from the deep-sea glass sponge Monorhaphis chuni. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 273:69-115. [PMID: 19215903 DOI: 10.1016/s1937-6448(08)01803-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Only 13 years after realizing, during a repair of a telegraph cable pulled out from the deep sea, that the depth of the ocean is plentifully populated with a highly diverse fauna and flora, the Challenger expedition (1873-1876) treasured up a rich collection of vitreous sponges (Hexactinellida). They had been described by Schulze and represent the phylogenetically oldest class of siliceous sponges (phylum Porifera); they are eye-catching because of their distinct body plan, which relies on a filigree skeleton. It is constructed by an array of morphologically determined elements, the spicules. Soon after, during the German Deep Sea Expedition "Valdivia" (1898-1899), Schulze could describe the largest siliceous hexactinellid sponge on Earth, the up to 3-m high Monorhaphis chuni, which develops the equally largest bio-silica structure, the giant basal spicules (3 mx10 mm). Using these spicules as a model, basic knowledge on the morphology, formation, and development of the skeletal elements could be achieved. They are formed by a proteinaceous scaffold (composed of a 27-kDa protein), which mediates the formation of the siliceous lamellae, into which the proteins are encased. The high number of 800 of 5-10 microm thick lamellae is concentrically arranged around the axial canal. The silica matrix is composed of almost pure silicon oxide, providing it with unusually optophysical properties, which are superior to those of man-made waveguides. Experiments might suggest that the spicules function in vivo as a nonocular photoreception system. In addition, the spicules have exceptional mechanical properties, combining mechanical stability with strength and stiffness. Like demosponges, also the hexactinellids synthesize their silica enzymatically, via the enzyme silicatein (27-kDa protein). It is suggested that these basic insights will surely contribute to a further applied utilization and exploration of silica in bio-material/biomedical science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Wang
- National Research Center for Geoanalysis, 26 Baiwanzhuang Dajie, Beijing, China
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14
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Müller WEG, Schlossmacher U, Eckert C, Krasko A, Boreiko A, Ushijima H, Wolf SE, Tremel W, Müller IM, Schröder HC. Analysis of the axial filament in spicules of the demosponge Geodia cydonium: Different silicatein composition in microscleres (asters) and megascleres (oxeas and triaenes). Eur J Cell Biol 2007; 86:473-87. [PMID: 17658193 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2007.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2007] [Revised: 06/09/2007] [Accepted: 06/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The skeleton of the siliceous sponges (Porifera: Hexactinellida and Demospongiae) is supported by spicules composed of bio-silica. In the axial canals of megascleres, harboring the axial filaments, three isoforms of the enzyme silicatein (-alpha, -beta and -gamma) have been identified until now, using the demosponges Tethya aurantium and Suberites domuncula. Here we describe the composition of the proteinaceous components of the axial filament from small spicules, the microscleres, in the demosponge Geodia cydonium that possesses megascleres and microscleres. The morphology of the different spicule types is described. Also in G. cydonium the synthesis of the spicules starts intracellularly and they are subsequently extruded to the extracellular space. In contrast to the composition of the silicateins in the megascleres (isoforms: -alpha, -beta and -gamma), the axial filaments of the microscleres contain only one form of silicatein, termed silicatein-alpha/beta, with a size of 25kDa. Silicatein-alpha/beta undergoes three phosphorylation steps. The gene encoding silicatein-alpha/beta was identified and found to comprise the same characteristic sites, described previously for silicateins-alpha or -beta. It is hypothesized, that the different composition of the axial filaments, with respect to silicateins, contributes to the morphology of the different types of spicules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner E G Müller
- Institut für Physiologische Chemie, Abteilung Angewandte Molekularbiologie, Universität Mainz, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany.
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15
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Weaver JC, Aizenberg J, Fantner GE, Kisailus D, Woesz A, Allen P, Fields K, Porter MJ, Zok FW, Hansma PK, Fratzl P, Morse DE. Hierarchical assembly of the siliceous skeletal lattice of the hexactinellid sponge Euplectella aspergillum. J Struct Biol 2007; 158:93-106. [PMID: 17175169 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2006.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2006] [Revised: 10/24/2006] [Accepted: 10/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite its inherent mechanical fragility, silica is widely used as a skeletal material in a great diversity of organisms ranging from diatoms and radiolaria to sponges and higher plants. In addition to their micro- and nanoscale structural regularity, many of these hard tissues form complex hierarchically ordered composites. One such example is found in the siliceous skeletal system of the Western Pacific hexactinellid sponge, Euplectella aspergillum. In this species, the skeleton comprises an elaborate cylindrical lattice-like structure with at least six hierarchical levels spanning the length scale from nanometers to centimeters. The basic building blocks are laminated skeletal elements (spicules) that consist of a central proteinaceous axial filament surrounded by alternating concentric domains of consolidated silica nanoparticles and organic interlayers. Two intersecting grids of non-planar cruciform spicules define a locally quadrate, globally cylindrical skeletal lattice that provides the framework onto which other skeletal constituents are deposited. The grids are supported by bundles of spicules that form vertical, horizontal and diagonally ordered struts. The overall cylindrical lattice is capped at its upper end by a terminal sieve plate and rooted into the sea floor at its base by a flexible cluster of barbed fibrillar anchor spicules. External diagonally oriented spiral ridges that extend perpendicular to the surface further strengthen the lattice. A secondarily deposited laminated silica matrix that cements the structure together additionally reinforces the resulting skeletal mass. The mechanical consequences of each of these various levels of structural complexity are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Weaver
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, and the Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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16
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Abstract
As the most ancient extant metazoans, glass sponges (Hexactinellida) have attracted recent attention in the areas of molecular evolution and the evolution of conduction systems but they are also interesting because of their unique histology: the greater part of their soft tissue consists of a single, multinucleate syncytium that ramifies throughout the sponge. This trabecular syncytium serves both for transport and as a pathway for propagation of action potentials that trigger flagellar arrests in the flagellated chambers. The present chapter is the first comprehensive modern account of this group and covers work going back to the earliest work dealing with taxonomy, gross morphology and histology as well as dealing with more recent studies. The structure of cellular and syncytial tissues and the formation of specialised intercellular junctions are described. Experimental work on reaggregation of dissociated tissues is also covered, a process during which histocompatibility, fusion and syncytialisation have been investigated, and where the role of the cytoskeleton in tissue architecture and transport processes has been studied in depth. The siliceous skeleton is given special attention, with an account of discrete spicules and fused silica networks, their diversity and distribution, their importance as taxonomic features and the process of silication. Studies on particle capture, transport of internalised food objects and disposal of indigestible wastes are reviewed, along with production and control of the feeding current. The electrophysiology of the conduction system coordinating flagellar arrests is described. The review covers salient features of hexactinellid ecology, including an account of habitats, distribution, abundance, growth, seasonal regression, predation, mortality, regeneration, recruitment and symbiotic associations with other organisms. Work on the recently discovered hexactinellid reefs of Canada's western continental shelf, analogues of long-extinct Jurassic sponge reefs, is given special attention. Reproductive biology is another area that has benefited from recent investigations. Seasonality, gametogenesis, embryogenesis, differentiation and larval biology are now understood in broad outline, at least for some species. The process whereby the cellular early larva becomes syncytial is described. A final section deals with the classification of recent and fossil glass sponges, phylogenetic relationships within the Hexactinellida and the phylogenetic position of the group within the Porifera. Palaeontological aspects are covered in so far as they are relevant to these topics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P Leys
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
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17
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Croce G, Viterbo D, Milanesio M, Amenitsch H. A mesoporous pattern created by nature in spicules from Thetya aurantium sponge. Biophys J 2006; 92:288-92. [PMID: 17056738 PMCID: PMC1697835 DOI: 10.1529/biophysj.106.094532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Siliceous or carbonate spicules provide support and defense to marine sponges. The inorganic envelope usually embodies a protein core. Our SAXS study of the siliceous spicules from the demosponge Thetya aurantium proves the very ordered structure assumed by the protein core inside the spicules. Indeed, not only the very sharp diffraction spots already found in previous studies on spicules from different sponges are confirmed, but also the 11 sharp spots in the diffraction pattern recorded after thermal treatment at 250 degrees C can only be interpreted in terms of a natural nanocomposite mesostructure with an hexagonal lattice formed by a three-dimensional periodic arrangement of silica cages in which the protein units act as structure directing agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Croce
- DISTA, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, Italy.
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Croce G, Frache A, Milanesio M, Viterbo D, Bavestrello G, Benatti U, Giovine M, Amenitsch H. Fiber diffraction study of spicules from marine sponges. Microsc Res Tech 2004; 62:378-81. [PMID: 14534910 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.10403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A synchrotron radiation fiber diffraction structural study of the axial filament of siliceous spicules from two species of marine sponges (the Demosponge Geodia cydonium and the Hexactinellid Scolymastra joubini) was carried out. The sharpness of the spots in the diffraction patterns indicated that the protein units in the filament of both samples were highly organized. A possible explanation is that the arrangement of the protein units is similar to that of the pores in highly ordered siliceous mesoporous materials. Nevertheless, the diffraction patterns are quite different for the two types of spicules. The pattern of G. cydonium is consistent with a regular 2D hexagonal lattice of protein units in the direction perpendicular to the spicule axis, with a repeating distance of 5.8 nm; the units are linked to form fibers along the axis. The pattern of S. joubini indicates the presence of two different 2D lattices in which the repeating protein units are inclined by +50 degrees and -50 degrees with respect to the elongation axis; the distance between the units increases to 8.4 nm. This 2D model is consistent with hexagonal packing of spirally oriented cylindrical protein units elongated along the filament axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Croce
- DISTA, Universita' del Piemonte Orientale A. Avogadro, I-15100 Alessandria, Italy
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Abstract
Transmitted light microscope and SEM observations of various growth stages, including very young forms, of lithistid demosponge spicules called desmas provided a wealth of new observations on silica deposition in desmas of most lithistid demosponge groups. In typical (pachastrellid) demosponges a basic feature of silica deposition in young spicules is the formation of silica granules (100-160 nm in diameter) deposited in more or less regular concentric layers. Further growth stages in typical demosponges are similar, only silica granules are smaller and more densely packed. The shape of the spicule is controlled by an organic axial filament, while features of the outer spicule surface are also determined by silicalemma. In lithistid desmas the early stage of silica deposition is controlled by an organic axial filament or, in some cases, dispersed organic molecules only. The next step, after early arrest of axial filament growth and its total encasing by silica, is the deposition of various silica granules (40-300 nm in diameter), spheres, and/or cylinders (1,300-3,330 nm), which are either the result of precipitation or the effect of templating by organic molecules (proteins and polysaccharides), without direct control by the silicalemma. The later stages of desma growth are under direct control of the silicalemma, which molds secondary branches and/or elements of sculpture of the desmas. The tips of desmas, which articulate with older desmas, are also controlled by local spatial relationships. Differentiation of morphological forms of silica in desmas, which is at least genus-specific, clearly supports the polyphyletic nature of lithistid sponges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Pisera
- Instytut Paleobiologii, Polska Akademia Nauk, 00-818 Warszawa, Poland.
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Uriz MJ, Turon X, Becerro MA, Agell G. Siliceous spicules and skeleton frameworks in sponges: Origin, diversity, ultrastructural patterns, and biological functions. Microsc Res Tech 2003; 62:279-99. [PMID: 14534903 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.10395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Silica deposition is a fundamental process in sponges. Most sponges in the Classes Demospongiae and Hexactinellida secrete siliceous elements, which can subsequently fuse, interlock with each other, or form three-dimensional structures connected by spongin. The resulting skeletal frameworks allow sponges to grow upwards and facilitate water exchange with minimal metabolic cost. Several studies on sponge skeletogenesis have been published. We are beginning to understand the mechanisms of spicule secretion and the role of spicules and skeletal frameworks in the biology, ecology, and evolution of sponges. Molecular techniques and ecological experiments have demonstrated the genetic control of the process and the contribution of environmental factors to the expression of a sponge spicule, respectively. However, other classic topics such as the role of membranes in silicon transport or whether spicules are formed in situ or secreted anywhere in the sponge mesohyl and then transported to the skeletal framework require further investigation. We review the process of silica deposition in sponges at the molecular and cellular levels, as well as the biological and ecological functions of spicules and skeletons. The genetic control of spicule shapes makes them useful in the reconstruction of sponge phylogeny, although recent experiments have demonstrated the influence of environmental factors in modulating spicule size, shape, and the presence or absence of one or more spicule types. The implications of such variations in sponge taxonomy may be important. Besides supporting sponge cells, spicules can help larvae stay buoyant while in the plankton or reach the bottom at settlement, enhance reproduction success, or catch prey. Conversely, the role of spicules and skeletons in deterring predation has not been demonstrated. Knowledge of several aspects is still based on a single or a few species and extrapolations should be made only with caution. With the advent of new molecular techniques, new lines of research are presently open and active in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- María-J Uriz
- Center for Advanced Studies (CSIC), Girona, Spain.
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Weaver JC, Morse DE. Molecular biology of demosponge axial filaments and their roles in biosilicification. Microsc Res Tech 2003; 62:356-67. [PMID: 14534908 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.10401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
For hundreds of years, the skeletal elements of marine and freshwater sponges have intrigued investigators with a diverse array of remarkably complex morphologies. Early studies of demosponge monaxonal megascleres revealed the presence of a central organic axial filament running their entire length. Until recently, however, the precise function of these axial filaments was largely unknown. The spicules from the temperate Eastern Pacific demosponge, Tethya aurantia, comprise approximately 75% of the dry weight of this species, facilitating the large-scale isolation and purification of the biosilica-associated proteins. Silicateins, the most abundant proteins comprising the axial filaments of these spicules, prove to be members of a well-known superfamily of proteolytic and hydrolytic enzymes and can be easily collected after silica demineralization with hydrofluoric acid. Consistent with these findings, the intact filaments are more than simple, passive templates; in vitro, they actively catalyze and spatially direct the hydrolysis and polycondensation of silicon alkoxides to yield silica at neutral pH and low temperature. Catalytic activity also is exhibited by the monomeric subunits obtained by disaggregation of the protein filaments and those produced from recombinant DNA templates cloned in bacteria. These proteins also can be used to direct the polymerization of organosilicon polymers (silicones) from the corresponding organically functionalized silicon alkoxides. Based on these observations, the silicateins are currently being used as models for the design of biomimetic agents with unique catalytic and structure-directing properties. The presence of axial filaments in a diversity of spicule types and the evolutionary implications of these findings are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Weaver
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Marine Biotechnology Center, Marine Science Institute, and the Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA
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Abstract
Spicule deposition was studied by electron microscopy in fixed embryos and larvae of the haplosclerid sponge Reniera sp. and the hexactinellid Oopsacas minuta. Spicules form in centrally located vacuoles within cells and within syncytia, as in the adult sponges. In Reniera, scleroblasts differentiate from micromeres prior to gastrulation. At gastrulation the scleroblasts migrate to the periphery of the embryo and commence spicule deposition around a hexagonal axial filament. Sclerocytes have numerous pseudopodia and migrate to the posterior pole where they become aligned along the antero-posterior axis in the free-swimming larva. Reniera larvae possess some 40-50 oxeas, each 70-75 microm long and 1 microm wide. Mature Oopsacas larvae have up to 14 stauractin spicules, which are produced on a rectangular axial filament in tissues that lie under the smooth epithelium at the posterior pole of the larva. Young sclerocytes have many pseudopodia. The 4-rayed spicules elongate along both the antero-posterior and medial axes, until the longitudinal rays become anchored in a lipid-filled cytoplasm at the anterior of the larva and the lateral rays intersect around the midline. The length of the transverse rays of the stauractins in free-swimming larvae are 27-45 microm each, while the length of the two longitudinal rays is 40-80 microm. Although spicule deposition begins in cells with a similar morphology in both cellular and syncytial sponges, the elaboration and organization of the spicules differ markedly in cellular and syncytial sponges and appear to be an outcome of the very distinct cellular differentiation and larval morphogenesis that occur in each of these groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P Leys
- Department of Biological Sciences, CW405, The University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
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Uriz MJ, Turon X, Becerro MA. Silica Deposition in Demosponges. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR AND SUBCELLULAR BIOLOGY 2003; 33:163-93. [PMID: 14518373 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-55486-5_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Uriz
- Centre d'Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB, CSIC), Accés a la Cala Sant Francesc 14, 17300 Blanes, Girona, Spain
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