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Owen EJ, Heylen RA, Stewart K, Winyard PG, Jenkins ATA. The multi-factorial modes of action of urease in the pathogenesis of incontinence associated dermatitis. SKIN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2024; 4:e349. [PMID: 38846694 PMCID: PMC11150740 DOI: 10.1002/ski2.349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Background Incontinence Associated Dermatitis (IAD) is a type of skin inflammation caused by chronic exposure to urine and/or faeces. Current treatment strategies involve creating a barrier between the skin and urine/faeces rather than targeting specific irritants. Urease expressing pathogens catalyse the conversion of urea, present in urine, into ammonia. The accumulation of ammonia causes an elevation in skin pH which is believed to activate faecal enzymes which damage skin, and opportunistic pathogens, which lead to secondary infections. Objectives To develop a better, multi-factorial model of IAD pathogenesis, including the effect of urease-expressing bacteria on skin, mechanism of damage of urease and urease-triggered activity of faecal enzymes and secondary pathogens. To study the effect of urease inhibition on preventing IAD skin damage. Methods Five separate studies were made using ex vivo porcine skin and in vivo human skin models. Measurements of the change in skin barrier function were made using skin impedance, trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL), stratum corneum moisture and pH. Skin was exposed to artificial urine, inoculated with various microbes, enzymes and chemicals to examine the influence of: 1) urease-positive Proteus mirabilis 2) ammonia, 3) combination of P. mirabilis and a faecal enzyme, trypsin, 4) combination of P. mirabilis and opportunistic pathogens, Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus, 5) inhibition of urease using acetohydroxamic acid (AHA) on barrier function. Results The urease-mediated production of ammonia had two principal effects: it elevated skin pH and caused inflammation, leading to significant breakdown in skin (stratum corneum) barrier function. Urease was found to further increase the activity of faecal enzymes and opportunistic pathogens, due to elevated skin pH. The urease inhibitor, AHA, was shown to have significantly reduced damage to skin barrier function, measured as its electrical resistance. Conclusions Targeted therapeutic strategies should be developed to prevent the manifestation of IAD, rather than creating a generic barrier between skin and urine/faeces. Urease has been identified as a crucial component in the manifestation of IAD, due to its role in the production of ammonia. Urease inhibition provides a promising therapeutic target to halt the progression of IAD.
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Berkey CA, Styke C, Yoshitake H, Sonoki Y, Uchiyama M, Dauskardt RH. Carbon dioxide foam bubbles enhance skin penetration through the stratum corneum layer with mechanical mechanism. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2023; 231:113538. [PMID: 37738871 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2023.113538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Topical skin formulations often include penetration enhancers that interact with the outer stratum corneum (SC) layer to chemically enhance diffusion. Alternatively, penetration can be mechanically enhanced with simple rubbing in the presence of solid particles sometimes included to exfoliate the top layers of the SC. Our goal was to evaluate micron-sized carbon dioxide bubbles included in a foamed moisturizing formulation as a mechanical penetration enhancement strategy. We show that moisturizing foam bubbles cause an increase in SC formulation penetration using both mechanical and spectroscopic characterization. Our results suggest viscous liquid film drainage between coalescing gaseous bubbles creates local regions of increased hydrodynamic pressure in the foam liquid layer adjacent to the SC surface that enhances treatment penetration. An SC molecular diffusion model is used to rationalize the observed behavior. The findings indicate marked increased levels of treatment concentration in the SC at 2 h and that persists to 18 h after exposure, far exceeding non-foamed treatments. The study suggests an alternate strategy for increasing formulation penetration with a non-chemical mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Berkey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Cassandra Styke
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Reinhold H Dauskardt
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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Porto Ferreira VT, Silva GC, Martin AA, Maia Campos PMBG. Topical dexpanthenol effects on physiological parameters of the stratum corneum by Confocal Raman Microspectroscopy. Skin Res Technol 2023; 29:e13317. [PMID: 37753694 PMCID: PMC10504581 DOI: 10.1111/srt.13317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Topical use of dexpanthenol presents well-established moisturizing properties and maintenance and repair of the skin barrier function, however, its exact action mechanisms are not completely elucidated. In this context, Confocal Raman Microspectroscopy is an optical method that enables non-invasive and non-destructive in vivo analysis with the sensitive acquisition of molecular changes in different skin layers. Herein, the aim was to evaluate the effects of topical dexpanthenol on the components and physiological parameters of the stratum corneum (SC). MATERIALS AND METHODS Ten healthy female subjects underwent skin evaluation by means of a Confocal Raman Spectrometer Skin Analyzer 3510. Spectral data were obtained from the skin of the anterior forearm region, before and 2 h after applying a cosmetic formulation containing or not containing 5% dexpanthenol. RESULTS Semiquantitative analysis of the natural moisturizing factor showed a significant decrease in content after 2 h of topical dexpanthenol application, while the analysis of the lamellar organization of intercellular lipids and the secondary structure of keratin showed a significant increase in hexagonal organization of lipids at the first half of the SC and a significant increase in β-pleated sheet conformation of keratin. CONCLUSION Effects of topical dexpanthenol on SC suggest a contribution in increasing fluidity of both lipidic and protein components of the SC and are compatible with dexpanthenol activity in maintaining adequate physiological conditions and preventing transepidermal water loss. This study also contributes to the elucidation of action mechanisms and other concurrent biochemical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitoria Tonini Porto Ferreira
- Department of Phmarmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Riberão PretoUniversity of São PauloSão PauloBrazil
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Owen EJ, Hathaway H, Lafferty B, Jenkins ATA. Using electrocardiogram electrodes to monitor skin impedance spectroscopic response when skin is subjected to sustained static pressure. SKIN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2023. [PMID: 37538331 PMCID: PMC10395637 DOI: 10.1002/ski2.225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
Background Impedance spectroscopy is a non-invasive technique which can be used to monitor skin barrier function, with potential applications in early-stage pressure ulcer detection. This paper describes how changes in skin impedance, due to mechanical damage of the stratum corneum by tape stripping or applied pressure, can be straightforwardly measured using commercial electrocardiogram electrodes and a relatively low-cost impedance analyser. Two models of pressure injury were studied, an ex vivo porcine and in vivo human skin model. Objectives Determine whether impedance spectroscopy may have potential utility in measuring the effect on skin of applied pressure on early-stage pressure injury. Methods Two models were utilized to measure the effect of pressure. Porcine model: 0, 7.5, 15 or 22.5 mmHg of pressure was applied for up to 24 h (N = 4) and monitored at various time intervals. Human Model: 88 mmHg of pressure was applied for four sets of three-minute intervals (N = 13) and post-pressure recovery was monitored for 4 h. For each model, skin impedance was monitored at 0.1 Hz-50 kHz using disposable Ag/AgCl electrodes. The data was analysed using Ordinary One-Way Analysis of Variance. Results Porcine model: after 24 h, the impedance of pressure-loaded skin was significantly reduced compared to the non-loaded control group (p ≤ 0.0001); this reduction in impedance was proportional to the degree of mechanical loading. Histology images of skin cross-sections provided qualitative evidence that the epidermis was structurally compromised by pressure. Human Model: the response of healthy skin to applied pressure displayed inter-variation. Participants with a significant change in skin impedance (p ≤ 0.01) also demonstrated signs of erythema. Conclusions This study suggests that using impedance spectroscopy to measure skin (stratum corneum) resistance may have utility in giving early warning of skin pressure injury prior to clinical symptoms, with a good correlation between observed erythema and reduction in skin resistance. Further work should be initiated on patients at risk of pressure injury to improve intervention strategies, including in darker skin tones where early-stage pressure injuries may not be visually distinct.
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Évora AS, Adams MJ, Johnson SA, Zhang Z. Corneocytes: Relationship between Structural and Biomechanical Properties. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2021; 34:146-161. [PMID: 33780956 DOI: 10.1159/000513054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Skin is the interface between an organism and the external environment, and hence the stratum corneum (SC) is the first to withstand mechanical insults that, in certain conditions, may lead to integrity loss and the development of pressure ulcers. The SC comprises corneocytes, which are vital elements to its barrier function. These cells are differentiated dead keratinocytes, without organelles, composed of a cornified envelope and a keratin-filled interior, and connected by corneodesmosomes (CDs). SUMMARY The current review focusses on the relationship between the morphological, structural, and topographical features of corneocytes and their mechanical properties, to understand how they assist the SC in maintaining skin integrity and in responding to mechanical insults. Key Messages: Corneocytes create distinct regions in the SC: the inner SC is characterized by immature cells with a fragile cornified envelope and a uniform distribution of CDs; the upper SC has resilient cornified envelopes and a honeycomb distribution of CDs, with a greater surface area and a smaller thickness than cells from the inner layer. The literature indicates that this upward maturation process is one of the most important steps in the mechanical resistance and barrier function of the SC. The morphology of these cells is dependent on the body site: the surface area in non-exposed skin is about 1,000-1,200 μm2, while for exposed skin, for example, the cheek and forehead, is about 700-800 μm2. Corneocytes are stiff cells compared to other cellular types, for example, the Young's modulus of muscle and fibroblast cells is typically a few kPa, while that of corneocytes is reported to be about hundreds of MPa. Moreover, these skin cells have 2 distinct mechanical regions: the cornified envelope (100-250 MPa) and the keratin matrix (250-500 MPa).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana S Évora
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J Adams
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Simon A Johnson
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Zhibing Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Coroneo MT. The eye as the discrete but defensible portal of coronavirus infection. Ocul Surf 2021; 19:176-182. [PMID: 32446866 PMCID: PMC7241406 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2020.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Oculo-centric factors may provide a key to understanding invasion success by SARS-CoV-2, a highly contagious, potentially lethal, virus with ocular tropism. Respiratory infection transmission via the eye and lacrimal-nasal pathway elucidated during the 1918 influenza pandemic, remains to be explored in this crisis. The eye and its adnexae represent a large surface area directly exposed to airborne viral particles and hand contact. The virus may bind to corneal and conjunctival angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors and potentially to the lipophilic periocular skin and superficial tear film with downstream carriage into the nasopharynx and subsequent access to the lungs and gut. Adenoviruses and influenza viruses share this ocular tropism and despite differing ocular and systemic manifestations and disease patterns, common lessons, particularly in management, emerge. Slit lamp usage places ophthalmologists at particular risk of exposure to high viral loads (and poor prognosis) and as for adenoviral epidemics, this may be a setting for disease transmission. Local, rather than systemic treatments blocking virus binding in this pathway (advocated for adenovirus) are worth considering. This pathway is accessible with eye drops or aerosols containing drugs which appear efficacious via systemic administration. A combination such as hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin and zinc, all of which have previously been used topically in the eye and which work at least in part by blocking ACE2 receptors, may offer a safe, cost-effective and resource-sparing intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minas Theodore Coroneo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Prince of Wales Hospital/University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Ophthalmic Surgeons, 2 St Pauls St, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia.
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Sabri AH, Cater Z, Gurnani P, Ogilvie J, Segal J, Scurr DJ, Marlow M. Intradermal delivery of imiquimod using polymeric microneedles for basal cell carcinoma. Int J Pharm 2020; 589:119808. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Dong P, Nikolaev V, Kröger M, Zoschke C, Darvin ME, Witzel C, Lademann J, Patzelt A, Schäfer-Korting M, Meinke MC. Barrier-disrupted skin: Quantitative analysis of tape and cyanoacrylate stripping efficiency by multiphoton tomography. Int J Pharm 2019; 574:118843. [PMID: 31759105 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have employed tape stripping (TS) or cyanoacrylate stripping (CS) to induce skin barrier disruption of the stratum corneum (SC) in human and porcine skin. However, the thickness of the remaining SC and the respective changes of the skin permeability have been rarely quantified. By using high-resolution multiphoton tomography, about 5 µm thick SC was found remaining on human skin after the performance of 30 times TS or 2 times CS. 50 tape strips or 4 times CS removed the entire human SC, but on porcine skin 2-3 µm thick SC was still left. TS can only reach the transition zone between the SC and the stratum granulosum because of the limited adhesion, whereas CS was able to remove viable skin layers. Permeation investigations on porcine skin revealed that the apparent permeability coefficient of the hydrophilic nitroxide spin 2,5,5-Tetramethyl-1-pyrrolidinyloxy-3-carboxylic acid increased 15-, 18-, and 21-fold when the SC amount remaining in the skin was 30%, 16%, and 8%, respectively. It is recommended to use at most 30 times TS or 3 times CS to obtain ex vivo barrier-disrupted skin that mimics diseased skin. The study provides quantitative information for the utility of TS and CS in skin penetration research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pin Dong
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy (Pharmacology & Toxicology), Berlin, Germany; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Viktor Nikolaev
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Berlin, Germany; Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (ISPMS SB RAS), Tomsk, Russia; Tomsk State University, Faculty of Physics, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Marius Kröger
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Zoschke
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy (Pharmacology & Toxicology), Berlin, Germany
| | - Maxim E Darvin
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Witzel
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, CVK CCM, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jürgen Lademann
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexa Patzelt
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Monika Schäfer-Korting
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy (Pharmacology & Toxicology), Berlin, Germany
| | - Martina C Meinke
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Berlin, Germany.
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Olesen CM, Fuchs CSK, Philipsen PA, Hædersdal M, Agner T, Clausen ML. Advancement through epidermis using tape stripping technique and Reflectance Confocal Microscopy. Sci Rep 2019; 9:12217. [PMID: 31434955 PMCID: PMC6704162 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48698-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The tape stripping technique is increasingly used in research regarding skin barrier function. However, number of tape strips varies between studies, and literature considering advancement into stratum corneum/epidermis in relation to number of tape strips is scarce. The aim of this pilot study was to assess the advancement through epidermis using tape stripping technique in healthy volunteers. A total of ten healthy volunteers were included. From all volunteers 0, 5, 15 and 35 consecutive tape strips (D-squame) were taken from four adjacent skin areas on the middle volar forearm, followed by Reflectance Confocal Microscopy (RCM) of the four areas to assess epidermal thickness. Squame Scan was used to determine amount of protein removed. Stratum corneum was completely removed in all volunteers after 35 tape strips. Advancement into epidermis was predominantly achieved by the first 15 tape strips, removing 25% of the total epidermis, whereas 35 tape strips removed 33% of epidermis. Protein removal per tape decreased with increasing depth. Information on advancement into the epidermis according to number of tape strips taken, is a significant step forward. The possibility to obtain samples from different layers of epidermis may lead to an improved understanding of skin barrier properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Meyer Olesen
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark.
| | - Christine Sofie Krohn Fuchs
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
| | - Peter Alshede Philipsen
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
| | - Merete Hædersdal
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
| | - Tove Agner
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
| | - Maja-Lisa Clausen
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
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Clausen ML, Slotved HC, Krogfelt KA, Agner T. Measurements of AMPs in stratum corneum of atopic dermatitis and healthy skin-tape stripping technique. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1666. [PMID: 29374283 PMCID: PMC5786105 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20204-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Decreased levels of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in atopic dermatitis (AD) have previously been reported and have been linked to the increased susceptibility to skin infections found in AD patients. This study intents to identify AMPs: hBD-2, hBD-3, RNase7, psoriasin and LL-37 in AD patients and healthy controls, and determine concentrations in consecutive depths of the outer most skin layers. Tape stripping was used on lesional and non-lesional skin. From each skin site, 35 consecutive tape strips were collected and pooled in groups of 5. Commercially available ELISA kits were used to determine AMP concentration in stratum corneum samples. hBD-2, hBD-3, RNase7 and psoriasin were identified in stratum corneum samples. hBD-3-level was markedly higher in AD non-lesional skin compared to healthy controls, and a similar trend was observed for RNase7. Most AMPs were distributed evenly through 35 tape strips, implying a homogeneous distribution of antimicrobial defense in the outer most skin layers. The findings indicate that AD patients may not suffer from a general baseline deficiency in AMPs, and that the innate immune defense is present throughout the stratum corneum, both insights of importance for understanding the role of AMPs in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja-Lisa Clausen
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - H-C Slotved
- Department of Bacteria, parasites and fungi, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Karen A Krogfelt
- Department of Bacteria, parasites and fungi, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tove Agner
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Wong LS, Otsuka A, Tanizaki H, Nonomura Y, Nakashima C, Yamamoto Y, Yen YT, Rerknimitr P, Honda T, Kabashima K. Decrease of superficial serine and lactate in the stratum corneum due to repetitive frictional trauma. Int J Dermatol 2017; 57:299-305. [PMID: 29243811 DOI: 10.1111/ijd.13856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Repetitive frictional trauma can be induced in daily and occupational activities, such as daily ablutions with washcloths. The influence of frictional trauma on the skin barrier function, especially in the perspective of the components of stratum corneum (SC), has not yet been studied in detail. Raman spectroscopy is a noninvasive optical technique based on inelastic light scattering that is capable of measuring several components in the skin. In this study, we used Raman spectroscopy to investigate the change in natural moisturizing factor (NMF) components in the SC following repetitive physical friction. METHODS Six healthy volunteers, who were included in the study after obtaining an informed consent, performed repetitive washing with soap using nylon towels on the forearm twice a day for 2 weeks and used Raman spectroscopy to investigate the change in NMF components in the SC. RESULTS Compared with the control, which was washed with soap at the same frequency on the opposite forearm, a significant increase in the transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and a decrease in NMF, serine, and total lactate, responsible for maintenance the SC hydration and structuring and maintaining the epidermal barrier function, in the SC were found. CONCLUSIONS Increased TEWL and decreased NMF are considered as an etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD); therefore, our findings provide evidence that daily activities with repetitive frictional trauma may be related to the predisposition of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lai San Wong
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Dermatology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of cosmetic applications and management, Yuh Ying junior college of healthcare and management, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Atsushi Otsuka
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hideaki Tanizaki
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yumi Nonomura
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Chisa Nakashima
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yosuke Yamamoto
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Healthcare Epidemiology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yu Ta Yen
- Department of Dermatology, Fu-Yin Hospital, Pentong, Taiwan
| | - Pawinee Rerknimitr
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tetsuya Honda
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kenji Kabashima
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.,Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN) and Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Biopolis, Singapore
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12
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Comparison of suction blistering and tape stripping for analysis of epidermal genes, proteins and lipids. Arch Dermatol Res 2017; 309:757-765. [DOI: 10.1007/s00403-017-1776-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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13
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Joshi A, Joshi A, Patel H, Ponnoth D, Stagni G. Cutaneous Penetration-Enhancing Effect of Menthol: Calcium Involvement. J Pharm Sci 2017; 106:1923-1932. [PMID: 28400197 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2017.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Menthol is a naturally occurring terpene used as a penetration enhancer in topical and transdermal formulations. Literature shows a growing interest in menthol's interactions with the transient receptor potential melastatin 8. A decrease in extracellular Ca2+ due to the activation of the transient receptor potential melastatin 8 receptor produces inhibition of E-cadherin expression that is responsible for cell-cell adhesion. Because calcium is present in the entire epidermis, the purpose of this study is to evaluate whether the aforementioned properties of menthol are also related to its penetration-enhancing effects. We formulated 16 gels: (i) drug-alone (diphenhydramine or lidocaine), (ii) drug with menthol, (iii) drug, menthol, and calcium channel blocker (CCB; verapamil or diltiazem), and (iv) drug and CCB. In vitro studies showed no effect of the CCB on the release of the drugs either with or without menthol. In vivo experiments were performed for each drug/menthol/CCB combination gel by applying 4 formulations on a shaved rabbit's dorsum on the same day. Dermis concentration profiles were assessed with microdialysis. The gels containing menthol showed higher penetration of drugs than those without whereas the addition of the CCB consistently inhibited the penetration-enhancing effects of menthol. In summary, these findings strongly support the involvement of calcium in the penetration-enhancing effect of menthol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Joshi
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy, Long Island University, Brooklyn, New York 11201
| | - Abhay Joshi
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy, Long Island University, Brooklyn, New York 11201
| | - Hiren Patel
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy, Long Island University, Brooklyn, New York 11201
| | - Dovenia Ponnoth
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy, Long Island University, Brooklyn, New York 11201
| | - Grazia Stagni
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Arnold and Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy, Long Island University, Brooklyn, New York 11201.
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Chen W, Kinsler VA, Macmillan D, Di WL. Tissue Kallikrein Inhibitors Based on the Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor Scaffold - A Potential Therapeutic Intervention for Skin Diseases. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166268. [PMID: 27824929 PMCID: PMC5100903 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue kallikreins (KLKs), in particular KLK5, 7 and 14 are the major serine proteases in the skin responsible for skin shedding and activation of inflammatory cell signaling. In the normal skin, their activities are controlled by an endogenous protein protease inhibitor encoded by the SPINK5 gene. Loss-of-function mutations in SPINK5 leads to enhanced skin kallikrein activities and cause the skin disease Netherton Syndrome (NS). We have been developing inhibitors based on the Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor 1 (SFTI-1) scaffold, a 14 amino acids head-to-tail bicyclic peptide with a disulfide bond. To optimize a previously reported SFTI-1 analogue (I10H), we made five analogues with additional substitutions, two of which showed improved inhibition. We then combined those substitutions and discovered a variant (Analogue 6) that displayed dual inhibition of KLK5 (tryptic) and KLK7 (chymotryptic). Analogue 6 attained a tenfold increase in KLK5 inhibition potency with an Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) Kd of 20nM. Furthermore, it selectively inhibits KLK5 and KLK14 over seven other serine proteases. Its biological function was ascertained by full suppression of KLK5-induced Protease-Activated Receptor 2 (PAR-2) dependent intracellular calcium mobilization and postponement of Interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion in cell model. Moreover, Analogue 6 permeates through the cornified layer of in vitro organotypic skin equivalent culture and inhibits protease activities therein, providing a potential drug lead for the treatment of NS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjie Chen
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Programme, Immunobiology Section, UCL GOS Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Veronica A. Kinsler
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine Programme, UCL GOS Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Derek Macmillan
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wei-Li Di
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Programme, Immunobiology Section, UCL GOS Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Abdayem R, Formanek F, Minondo AM, Potter A, Haftek M. Cell surface glycans in the human
stratum corneum
: distribution and depth‐related changes. Exp Dermatol 2016; 25:865-871. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.13070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rawad Abdayem
- University of Lyon1 EA4169 “Fundamental, Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects of Skin Barrier Function” Lyon France
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation Aulnay sous Bois France
| | | | | | - Anne Potter
- L'Oréal Research and Innovation Aulnay sous Bois France
| | - Marek Haftek
- University of Lyon1 EA4169 “Fundamental, Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects of Skin Barrier Function” Lyon France
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16
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The global mechanical properties and multi-scale failure mechanics of heterogeneous human stratum corneum. Acta Biomater 2016; 43:78-87. [PMID: 27431879 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 07/03/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The outermost layer of skin, or stratum corneum, regulates water loss and protects underlying living tissue from environmental pathogens and insults. With cracking, chapping or the formation of exudative lesions, this functionality is lost. While stratum corneum exhibits well defined global mechanical properties, macroscopic mechanical testing techniques used to measure them ignore the structural heterogeneity of the tissue and cannot provide any mechanistic insight into tissue fracture. As such, a mechanistic understanding of failure in this soft tissue is lacking. This insight is critical to predicting fracture risk associated with age or disease. In this study, we first quantify previously unreported global mechanical properties of isolated stratum corneum including the Poisson's ratio and mechanical toughness. African American breast stratum corneum is used for all assessments. We show these parameters are highly dependent on the ambient humidity to which samples are equilibrated. A multi-scale investigation assessing the influence of structural heterogeneities on the microscale nucleation and propagation of cracks is then performed. At the mesoscale, spatially resolved equivalent strain fields within uniaxially stretched stratum corneum samples exhibit a striking heterogeneity, with localized peaks correlating closely with crack nucleation sites. Subsequent crack propagation pathways follow inherent topographical features in the tissue and lengthen with increased tissue hydration. At the microscale, intact corneocytes and polygonal shaped voids at crack interfaces highlight that cracks propagate in superficial cell layers primarily along intercellular junctions. Cellular fracture does occur however, but is uncommon. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Human stratum corneum protects the body against harmful environmental pathogens and insults. Upon mechanical failure, this barrier function is lost. Previous studies characterizing the mechanics of stratum corneum have used macroscopic testing equipment designed for homogenous materials. Such measurements ignore the tissue's rich topography and heterogeneous structure, and cannot describe the underlying mechanistic process of tissue failure. For the first time, we establish a mechanistic insight into the failure mechanics of soft heterogeneous tissues by investigating how cracks nucleate and propagate in stratum corneum. We further quantify previously unreported values of the tissue's Poisson's ratio and toughness, and their dramatic variation with ambient humidity. To date, skin models examining drug delivery, wound healing, and ageing continue to estimate these parameters.
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17
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Clausen ML, Slotved HC, Krogfelt KA, Agner T. Tape Stripping Technique for Stratum Corneum Protein Analysis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19918. [PMID: 26817661 PMCID: PMC4730153 DOI: 10.1038/srep19918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the amount of protein in stratum corneum in atopic dermatitis (AD) patients and healthy controls, using tape stripping technique. Furthermore, to compare two different methods for protein assessment. Tape stripping was performed in AD patients and healthy controls to collect stratum corneum samples and subsequently analysed with two different methods: Squame Scan, which gives an estimate of total protein (soluble and insoluble) and Micro BCA protein determination kit which measures soluble protein. Significant differences in cumulative protein content between AD lesional, AD non-lesional and healthy control skin was found using the Squame Scan as well as the Micro BCA protein determination kit. AD patients had significantly lower amount of protein, both total protein and soluble protein compared to healthy controls. Furthermore, soluble protein formed 82% of total protein in AD lesional skin, compared to 17-24% for AD non-lesional skin and healthy control. A decreasing amount of total protein with increasing stratum corneum depth was found for all skin types. Significant differences in stratum corneum protein content between AD lesional, AD non-lesional and healthy control skin were revealed, independent of method used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja-Lisa Clausen
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - H.-C. Slotved
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Karen A. Krogfelt
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tove Agner
- Department of Dermatology, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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18
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Champagne AM, Allen HC, Williams JB. Lipid composition and molecular interactions change with depth in the avian stratum corneum to regulate cutaneous water loss. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:3032-41. [PMID: 26447196 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.125310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The outermost 10-20 µm of the epidermis, the stratum corneum (SC), consists of flat, dead cells embedded in a matrix of intercellular lipids. These lipids regulate cutaneous water loss (CWL), which accounts for over half of total water loss in birds. However, the mechanisms by which lipids are able to regulate CWL and how these mechanisms change with depth in the SC are poorly understood. We used attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) to measure lipid-lipid and lipid-water interactions as a function of depth in the SC of house sparrows (Passer domesticus Linnaeus) in the winter and summer. We then compared these molecular interactions at each depth with lipid composition at the same depth. We found that in both groups, water content increased with depth in the SC, and likely contributed to greater numbers of gauche defects in lipids in deeper levels of the SC. In winter-caught birds, which had lower rates of CWL than summer-caught birds, water exhibited stronger hydrogen bonding in deeper layers of the SC, and these strong hydrogen bonds were associated with greater amounts of polar lipids such as ceramides and cerebrosides. Based on these data, we propose a model by which polar lipids in deep levels of the SC form strong hydrogen bonds with water molecules to increase the viscosity of water and slow the permeation of water through the SC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Champagne
- Department of Biology, University of Southern Indiana, Science Center 1255 8600 University Blvd, Evansville, IN 47712, USA
| | - Heather C Allen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 1102 Newman and Wolfrom Laboratory, 100 W 18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University, 129 Hamilton Hall, 1645 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Joseph B Williams
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Aronoff Laboratory, 318 W 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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19
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Understanding age-induced alterations to the biomechanical barrier function of human stratum corneum. J Dermatol Sci 2015; 80:94-101. [PMID: 26276440 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2015.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 07/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The appearance and function of human skin are dramatically altered with aging, resulting in higher rates of severe xerosis and other skin complaints. The outermost layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum (SC), is responsible for the biomechanical barrier function of skin and is also adversely transformed with age. With age the keratin filaments within the corneocytes are prone to crosslinking, the amount of intercellular lipids decreases resulting in fewer lipid bilayers, and the rate of corneocyte turnover decreases. OBJECTIVES The effect of these structural changes on the mechanical properties of the SC has not been determined. Here we determine how several aspects of the SC's mechanical properties are dramatically degraded with age. METHODS We performed a range of biomechanical experiments, including micro-tension, bulge, double cantilever beam, and substrate curvature testing on abdominal stratum corneum from cadaveric female donors ranging in age from 29 to 93 years old. RESULTS We found that the SC stiffens with age, indicating that the keratin fibers stiffen, similarly to collagen fibers in the dermis. The cellular cohesion also increases with age, a result of the altered intercellular lipid structure. The kinetics of water movement through the SC is also decreased. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that the combination of structural and mechanical property changes that occur with age are quite significant and may contribute to the prevalence of skin disorders among the elderly.
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20
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Epidermal permeability barrier in the treatment of keratosis pilaris. Dermatol Res Pract 2015; 2015:205012. [PMID: 25802513 PMCID: PMC4354723 DOI: 10.1155/2015/205012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives. To evaluate and compare the efficacy, safety, hydrating properties, and tolerability of 10% lactic acid (LA) and 5% salicylic acid (SA) in the therapy of keratosis pilaris (KP). Material and Method. Patients with KP were randomized for treatment with either 10% LA or 5% SA creams being applied twice daily for 3 months. The patients were clinically assessed at baseline and after 4, 8, and 12 weeks of treatment and 4 weeks after treatment. The functional properties of the stratum corneum (SC) were determined before treatment, 12 weeks, and follow-up phase by high-frequency conductance and transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Results. At the end of the trial, the mean reduction of the lesions from baseline was statistically significant for 10% LA (66%) and 5% SA (52%). During the treatment, higher conductance values were found on both group and this improvement was maintained until the follow up period. No significant differences in transepidermal water loss were observed after treatment. The adverse effects were limited to mild irritation localized on the skin without systemic side effect. Conclusion. The study demonstrated that 10% LA and 5% SA are beneficial to treat KP with the significantly clearance and marked improvement as by instrumental evaluation.
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21
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Feng L, Chandar P, Lu N, Vincent C, Bajor J, McGuiness H. Characteristic differences in barrier and hygroscopic properties between normal and cosmetic dry skin. II. Depth profile of natural moisturizing factor and cohesivity. Int J Cosmet Sci 2014; 36:231-8. [DOI: 10.1111/ics.12118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- L. Feng
- Unilever Research and Development Trumbull; 40 Merritt Boulevard Trumbull CT 06611 CT USA
| | - P. Chandar
- Unilever Research and Development Trumbull; 40 Merritt Boulevard Trumbull CT 06611 CT USA
| | - N. Lu
- Unilever Research and Development Trumbull; 40 Merritt Boulevard Trumbull CT 06611 CT USA
| | - C. Vincent
- Unilever Research and Development Trumbull; 40 Merritt Boulevard Trumbull CT 06611 CT USA
| | - J. Bajor
- Unilever Research and Development Trumbull; 40 Merritt Boulevard Trumbull CT 06611 CT USA
| | - H. McGuiness
- Unilever Research and Development Trumbull; 40 Merritt Boulevard Trumbull CT 06611 CT USA
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22
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Boireau-Adamezyk E, Baillet-Guffroy A, Stamatas GN. Age-dependent changes in stratum corneum barrier function. Skin Res Technol 2014; 20:409-15. [DOI: 10.1111/srt.12132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. Boireau-Adamezyk
- Faculté de pharmacie; EA 4041; Université Paris Sud 11; Châtenay-Malabry Cedex France
| | - A. Baillet-Guffroy
- Faculté de pharmacie; EA 4041; Université Paris Sud 11; Châtenay-Malabry Cedex France
| | - G. N. Stamatas
- Johnson & Johnson Santé Beauté France; Issy-les-Moulineaux Cedex France
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23
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Li X, Upadhyay AK, Bullock AJ, Dicolandrea T, Xu J, Binder RL, Robinson MK, Finlay DR, Mills KJ, Bascom CC, Kelling CK, Isfort RJ, Haycock JW, MacNeil S, Smallwood RH. Skin stem cell hypotheses and long term clone survival--explored using agent-based modelling. Sci Rep 2013; 3:1904. [PMID: 23712735 PMCID: PMC3664904 DOI: 10.1038/srep01904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial renewal in skin is achieved by the constant turnover and differentiation of keratinocytes. Three popular hypotheses have been proposed to explain basal keratinocyte regeneration and epidermal homeostasis: 1) asymmetric division (stem-transit amplifying cell); 2) populational asymmetry (progenitor cell with stochastic fate); and 3) populational asymmetry with stem cells. In this study, we investigated lineage dynamics using these hypotheses with a 3D agent-based model of the epidermis. The model simulated the growth and maintenance of the epidermis over three years. The offspring of each proliferative cell was traced. While all lineages were preserved in asymmetric division, the vast majority were lost when assuming populational asymmetry. The third hypothesis provided the most reliable mechanism for self-renewal by preserving genetic heterogeneity in quiescent stem cells, and also inherent mechanisms for skin ageing and the accumulation of genetic mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Li
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
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24
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Stratum corneum proteases and dry skin conditions. Cell Tissue Res 2012; 351:217-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1501-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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25
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Lin TK, Crumrine D, Ackerman LD, Santiago JL, Roelandt T, Uchida Y, Hupe M, Fabriàs G, Abad JL, Rice RH, Elias PM. Cellular changes that accompany shedding of human corneocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2012; 132:2430-2439. [PMID: 22739796 PMCID: PMC3447115 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2012.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Corneocyte desquamation has been ascribed to either: 1) proteolytic degradation of corneodesmosomes (CD); 2) disorganization of extracellular lamellar bilayers; and/or 3) ‘swell-shrinkage-slough’ (SSS) from hydration/dehydration. To address the cellular basis for normal exfoliation, we compared changes in lamellar bilayer architecture and CD structure in DSquame® strips from the 1st vs. 5th stripping (‘outer’ vs. ‘mid’-stratum corneum [SC], respectively) from 9 normal adult forearms. Strippings were either processed for standard EM or for ruthenium (Ru-V)- or osmium-tetroxide (Os-V) vapor fixation, followed by immediate epoxy embedment, an artifact-free protocol that to our knowledge is previously unreported. CDs are largely intact in the mid-SC, but replaced by electron-dense (hydrophilic) clefts (lacunae) that expand laterally, splitting lamellar arrays in the outer SC. Some undegraded DSG1/DSC1 redistribute uniformly into corneocyte envelopes (CEs) in the outer SC (shown by proteomics, Z-stack confocal imaging and immunoEM). CEs then thicken, likely facilitating exfoliation by increasing corneocyte rigidity. In vapor-fixed images, hydration only altered the volume of the extracellular compartment, expanding lacunae further separating membrane arrays. During dehydration, air replaced water, maintaining the expanded extracellular compartment. Hydration also provoked degradation of membranes by activating contiguous acidic ceramidase activity. Together, these studies identify several parallel mechanisms that orchestrate exfoliation from the surface of normal human skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Kai Lin
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Dermatology, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, and Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Debra Crumrine
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Larry D Ackerman
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Juan-Luis Santiago
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Dermatology, Hospital General de Ciudad Real, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Truus Roelandt
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Dermatology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel-Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yoshikazu Uchida
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Melanie Hupe
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Gemma Fabriàs
- Department of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Institut de Química Avançada de Catalunya, CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jose L Abad
- Department of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Institut de Química Avançada de Catalunya, CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Robert H Rice
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Peter M Elias
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Service, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
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26
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Mao G, Flach CR, Mendelsohn R, Walters RM. Imaging the distribution of sodium dodecyl sulfate in skin by confocal Raman and infrared microspectroscopy. Pharm Res 2012; 29:2189-201. [PMID: 22477073 PMCID: PMC3399083 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-012-0748-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Purpose To image SDS distribution across different skin regions, to compare the permeability difference between porcine and human skin, and to evaluate the interaction between SDS and skin. Methods Full thickness porcine and human skin was treated with acyl chain perdeuterated SDS (SDS-d25) at room temperature and at 34 °C for 3, 24 and 40 h. SDS distribution in skin was monitored by confocal Raman and IR microspectroscopic imaging. Permeation profiles of SDS-d25 in skin were derived from the band intensities of the CD2 stretching vibrations. The interaction between SDS and skin was monitored through the CH2 and CD2 stretching frequencies and the Amide I and II spectral region. Results SDS-d25 penetrates both porcine and human skin in a time and temperature-dependent manner, with slightly higher permeability through the stratum corneum (SC) in porcine skin. When SDS permeates into the SC, its chains are more ordered compared to SDS micelles. The secondary structure of keratin in the SC is not affected by SDS-d25. Conclusion The spatial distribution of SDS-d25 in skin was obtained for the first time. Infrared microscopic imaging provides unique opportunities to measure concentration profiles of exogenous materials in skin and offers insights to interaction between permeants and skin. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11095-012-0748-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Mao
- Johnson & Johnson Consumer Companies, Inc., 199 Grandview Rd., Skillman, New Jersey 08558-9418, USA.
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27
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Bhushan B. Nanotribological and nanomechanical properties of skin with and without cream treatment using atomic force microscopy and nanoindentation. J Colloid Interface Sci 2012; 367:1-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2011.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2011] [Revised: 10/06/2011] [Accepted: 10/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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28
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Haftek M, Callejon S, Sandjeu Y, Padois K, Falson F, Pirot F, Portes P, Demarne F, Jannin V. Compartmentalization of the human stratum corneum by persistent tight junction-like structures. Exp Dermatol 2011; 20:617-21. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2011.01315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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29
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30
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Involvement of corneodesmosome degradation and lamellar granule transportation in the desquamation process. Med Mol Morphol 2011; 44:1-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s00795-010-0513-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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31
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Oyama Z, Naoe Y, Kimura H, Masunaga T, Seishima M, Aoyama Y, Kitajima Y. New non-invasive method for evaluation of the stratum corneum structure in diseases with abnormal keratinization by immunofluorescence microscopy of desmoglein 1 distribution in tape-stripped samples. J Dermatol 2011; 37:873-81. [PMID: 20860737 DOI: 10.1111/j.1346-8138.2010.00875.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The corneodesmosomes in the stratum corneum are critical for the maintenance of stratum corneum integrity. To evaluate the normal and diseased keratinization states in the epidermis, we studied the distribution of desmoglein 1 (DSG1), a major component of corneodesmosomes, in samples of the stratum corneum obtained by tape stripping, a non-invasive method. Samples were collected from lesional skin of four patients with psoriasis and three with lichen planus, and from non-lesional skin of three volunteers. Upper stratum corneum cells were obtained by tape stripping and skin biopsies were obtained from adjacent sites. Tape-stripped samples were examined by immunofluorescence microscopy using anti-DSG1 monoclonal antibody, in combination with histopathology of skin biopsies. In normal human stratum corneum, which shows basket-woven orthokeratosis, DSG1-containing fluorescent dots were distributed on the lateral cell-cell contact areas of plasma membrane, but not on the dorsal/ventral plasma membrane, and formed a well-ordered hexagonal network structure. In psoriatic stratum corneum, fluorescent dots were distributed throughout the cell membrane at ventral aspects of corneocytes as well as at the lateral cell-cell contacts. In lichen planus, fluorescent dots were distributed homogeneously and/or heterogeneously on the ventral surface in some cells. Adjacent cells lacked DSG1 at the lateral cell-cell contacts, but were instead separated by distinctive black-gap lines. These results suggest that the intercellular adhesion by DSG1 may depend on the lateral plasma membrane in normal human stratum corneum, on the dorsal/ventral plasma membrane in lichen planus, and on both lateral and dorsal/ventral plasma membranes in psoriatic stratum corneum. Tape stripping and DSG1 immunofluorescence visualizes adhesion features of corneocytes and has considerable potential for evaluation of abnormal keratinization and the process of healing in response to treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuiei Oyama
- Department of Dermatology, Gifu University School of Medicine, Gifu, Japan
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HAFTEK M, SIMON M, KANITAKIS J, MARECHAL S, CLAUDY A, SERRE G, SCHMITT D. Expression of corneodesmosin in the granular layer and stratum corneum of normal and diseased epidermis. Br J Dermatol 2008. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2133.1997.19792087.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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35
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Wu KS, Stefik MM, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Dauskardt RH. Graded delamination behavior of human stratum corneum. Biomaterials 2006; 27:5861-70. [PMID: 16934326 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2006] [Accepted: 08/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An in vitro adhesion test method has been adapted to quantify the through-thickness intercellular delamination energy of isolated human stratum corneum (SC). Both untreated and delipidized tissues were tested. Measured delamination energies were found to increase from approximately 3 J/m(2) near the surface to approximately 15 J/m(2) for the inner layers of the tissue. For delipidized SC, the location of the initial debond was located closer to the center of the tissue. Delamination energy values were elevated compared to untreated specimens, increasing from approximately 7 J/m(2) near the surface to approximately 18 J/m(2) for the inner layers of the SC. Further tests were run to measure delamination energies of SC as a function of hydration (15-100% relative humidity (RH)) at approximately 25 degrees C and as a function of temperature (10-90 degrees C) at several hydrations (15, 45, 100% RH). Delamination energies were observed to decrease with increasing hydration and increasing temperature with the most significant changes occurring for 100% RH conditioned SC. Additional SC was treated with pH-buffered solutions (pH 4.2, 6.7, 9.9) and selected surfactant solutions (1%, 10% wt/wt sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)) for comparison to untreated controls. While statistically significant differences were observed, the SC was found to be resistant to large changes in delamination energy with pH and 1% wt/wt SDS treatments with values in the range 4.2-5.1J/m(2) compared to control values of 4.4 J/m(2). More substantially elevated values were observed for SC treated with a 10%wt/wt SDS solution (6.6J/m(2)) and a chloroform-methanol extraction (11.2J/m(2)).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth S Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Abstract
Most epidermal functions can be considered as protective, or more specifically, as defensive in nature. Yet, the term "barrier function" is often used synonymously with only one such defensive function, though arguably its most important, i.e., permeability barrier homeostasis. Regardless of their relative importance, these protective cutaneous functions largely reside in the stratum corneum (SC). In this review, I first explore the ways in which the multiple defensive functions of the SC are linked and interrelated, either by their shared localization or by common biochemical processes; how they are co-regulated in response to specific stressors; and how alterations in one defensive function impact other protective functions. Then, the structural and biochemical basis for these defensive functions is reviewed, including metabolic responses and signaling mechanisms of barrier homeostasis. Finally, the clinical consequences and therapeutic implications of this integrated perspective are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Elias
- Dermatology Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, California 94121, USA.
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Wu KS, van Osdol WW, Dauskardt RH. Mechanical properties of human stratum corneum: effects of temperature, hydration, and chemical treatment. Biomaterials 2005; 27:785-95. [PMID: 16095683 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2005] [Accepted: 06/24/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An in vitro mechanics approach to quantify the intercellular delamination energy and mechanical behavior of isolated human stratum corneum (SC) in a direction perpendicular to the skin surface is presented. The effects of temperature, hydration, and a chloroform-methanol treatment to remove intercellular lipids were explored. The delamination energy for debonding of cells within the SC layer was found to be sensitive to the moisture content of the tissue and to the test temperature. Delamination energies for untreated stratum corneum were measured in the range of 1-8J/m(2) depending on test temperature. Fully hydrated specimen energies decreased with increasing temperature, while room-humidity-hydrated specimens exhibited more constant values of 2-4J/m(2). Lipid-extracted specimens exhibited higher delamination energies of approximately 12J/m(2), with values decreasing to approximately 4J/m(2) with increasing test temperature. The peak separation stress decreased with increasing temperature and hydration, but lipid-extracted specimens exhibited higher peak stresses than untreated controls. The delaminated surfaces revealed an intercellular failure path with no evidence of tearing or fracture of cells. The highly anisotropic mechanical behavior of the SC is discussed in relation to the underlying SC structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth S Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Jacobi U, Weigmann HJ, Ulrich J, Sterry W, Lademann J. Estimation of the relative stratum corneum amount removed by tape stripping. Skin Res Technol 2005; 11:91-6. [PMID: 15807805 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0846.2005.00094.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/PURPOSE The tape stripping procedure is a suitable minimal invasive tool to study, e.g. the penetration and dermatopharmacokinetics of topically applied substances. In the present study, this procedure was used to remove the stratum corneum (SC) completely and to study the penetration of the UVA filter substance butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane after application in two different vehicles. METHODS The amount of corneocytes removed by each tape strip from the flexor forearm of human volunteers was determined via their pseudo-absorption. In a second part, the penetration profiles of a UVA filter substance applied in two different vehicles were determined following the developed standard protocol using the tape stripping procedure in combination with UV/VIS spectroscopy. RESULTS The amount of corneocytes removed by each tape strip was related to the number of tape strips used for removal. Mean values with a deviation of less than 20% concerning the relative amount of SC removed by a constant number of tape strips were obtained. For instance, a relative amount of 66 +/- 12% was removed with the first 20 tape strips, while nearly the complete SC (95 +/- 3%) was removed using 50 tape strips. In addition, these results were used to estimate the relative SC amounts removed, studying the penetration of the UVA filter substance after application in two different vehicles. No significant differences between the distributions of the UV filter substance applied in both emulsions were obtained (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The reported procedure for the estimation of the removed SC amount provides the possibility to avoid the complete removal of the SC and to compare the penetration characteristics obtained for different volunteers and different products in relation to the relative horny layer profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Jacobi
- Center of Experimental and Applied Cutaneous Physiology, Department of Dermatology, Charité--Medical Faculty, Berlin, Germany
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Bashir SJ, Dreher F, Chew AL, Zhai H, Levin C, Stern R, Maibach HI. Cutaneous bioassay of salicylic acid as a keratolytic. Int J Pharm 2005; 292:187-94. [PMID: 15725565 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2004.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2004] [Revised: 11/29/2004] [Accepted: 11/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Keratolytic efficacy of topical preparations containing salicylic acid was studied in humans utilizing adhesive tape stripping and quantifying SC removal by protein analysis. In combination with tape stripping, squamometry was used to evaluate the influence of salicylic acid on skin surface scaliness and desquamation. Furthermore, skin barrier perturbation and skin irritancy was recorded and related to the dermatopharmacological effect of the preparations. In contrast to squamometry, tape stripping combined with protein analysis was sensitive in detecting keratolytic effect of salicylic acid within hours of application. Importantly, whereas the pH of the preparations only minimally influenced efficacy, local dermatotoxicity was significantly increased at acidic pH. This indicates that the quest to increase the amount of free, non-dissociated SA is, in fact, counterproductive as the more acidic preparations resulted in skin irritation and barrier disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Bashir
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, 90 Medical Center Way, Surge Building #110, P.O. Box 0989, San Francisco, CA 94143-0989, USA
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Caubet C, Jonca N, Brattsand M, Guerrin M, Bernard D, Schmidt R, Egelrud T, Simon M, Serre G. Degradation of corneodesmosome proteins by two serine proteases of the kallikrein family, SCTE/KLK5/hK5 and SCCE/KLK7/hK7. J Invest Dermatol 2004; 122:1235-44. [PMID: 15140227 DOI: 10.1111/j.0022-202x.2004.22512.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 347] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Corneodesmosin (CDSN), desmoglein 1 (DSG1), and desmocollin 1 (DSC1) are adhesive proteins of the extracellular part of the corneodesmosomes, the junctional structures that mediate corneocyte cohesion. The degradation of these proteins at the epidermis surface is necessary for desquamation. Two serine proteases of the kallikrein family synthesized as inactive precursors have been implicated in this process: the stratum corneum chymotryptic enzyme (SCCE/KLK7/hK7) and the stratum corneum tryptic enzyme (SCTE/KLK5/hK5). Here, we analyzed the capacity of these enzymes to cleave DSG1, DSC1, and epidermal or recombinant forms of CDSN, at an acidic pH close to that of the stratum corneum. SCCE directly cleaved CDSN and DSC1 but was unable to degrade DSG1. But incubation with SCTE induced degradation of the three corneodesmosomal components. Using the recombinant form of CDSN, either with its N-glycan chain or enzymatically deglycosylated, we also demonstrated that oligosaccharide residues do not protect CDSN against proteolysis by SCCE. Moreover, our results suggest that SCTE is able to activate the proform of SCCE. These results strongly suggest that the two kalikreins are involved in desquamation. A model is proposed for desquamation that could be regulated by a precisely controlled protease-protease inhibitor balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Caubet
- UMR5165 "Epidermis Differentiation and Rheumatoid Autoimmunity", CNRS-P. Sabatier University (Institut Fédératif de Recherche 30 and INSERM-CNRS-Université P. Sabatier-Centre Hospitalier Universitaire), Toulouse, France
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Gasser P, Peno-Mazzarino L, Lati E, Djian B. Original semiologic standardized evaluation of stratum corneum hydration by DiagnoskinR stripping sample. Int J Cosmet Sci 2004; 26:117-27. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2494.2004.00209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
The principal function of intercellular lipids of the epidermal horny layer is the constitution of an occlusive barrier and regulation of transepidermal water fluxes. Self-assembly of lipid bilayers and formation of multilayered structures can be observed in the intercellular spaces of the stratum corneum. Progressive organisation of lipids provokes the lateral displacements of hydrophilic compartments, squeezed aside along the lipid layers towards intercellular junctions (corneodesmosomes). Proteolytic enzymes contained in the hydrophilic material are thus delivered to the extracellular portions of cohesive junctional proteins. Consequently, modifications of the composition and structure of the stratum corneum lipids may influence epidermal desquamation through the regulation of corneodesmosome accessibility to extracellular enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Haftek
- U.346 Inserm/CNRS, peau humaine et immunité, hôpital Edouard-Herriot, 69437 Lyon, France.
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Piérard-Franchimont C, Petit L, Piérard GE. Skin surface patterns of xerotic legs: the flexural and accretive types. Int J Cosmet Sci 2001; 23:121-6. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1467-2494.2001.00061.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Wagner H, Kostka KH, Lehr CM, Schaefer UF. Interrelation of permeation and penetration parameters obtained from in vitro experiments with human skin and skin equivalents. J Control Release 2001; 75:283-95. [PMID: 11489316 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-3659(01)00396-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In a comparative study, two different in vitro cutaneous test systems were examined: (1) The Franz diffusion cell (FD-C), a test system to study drug permeation through the skin and to obtain data like steady state flux and lag time as well as permeability and diffusion coefficients. (2) The Saarbruecken penetration model (SB-M), a test system to investigate drug penetration into different skin layers and after varying incubation times to acquire values about the quasi steady state drug amounts in the stratum corneum (SC). Three drug concentrations (0.9, 0.45 and 0.225%) of a lipophilic model drug preparation, flufenamic acid in wool alcohols ointment, were applied on the skin's surface using 'infinite dose' conditions. Trypsin-isolated SC, heat-separated epidermis, full-thickness skin and reconstructed human skin (RHS) served as skin membranes in the FD-C, while the SB-M experiments were only carried out using full-thickness skin. Increasing steady state flux data and m(ss) values (steady state drug amount in the SC) were detectable after the application of rising drug amounts. Concerning the permeability of the used skin membranes in establishing barrier properties, the following rank order was observed: RHS>SC> or =epidermis>full skin. The flux data of the FD-C experiments for isolated SC, separated epidermis and RHS were linearly related with the m(ss) values of the SB-M investigations, allowing a direct comparison of permeation with penetration parameters. Concerning the drug amount in the SC, previous investigations succeeded in the establishment of an in vivo/in vitro correlation. Based on the results presented here, the prediction of drug amounts present in the SC after different incubation times in vivo is now possible after penetration as well as permeation experiments using the lipophilic model drug preparation, flufenamic acid in wool alcohols ointment.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Wagner
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
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Simon M, Bernard D, Minondo AM, Camus C, Fiat F, Corcuff P, Schmidt R, Serre G. Persistence of both peripheral and non-peripheral corneodesmosomes in the upper stratum corneum of winter xerosis skin versus only peripheral in normal skin. J Invest Dermatol 2001; 116:23-30. [PMID: 11168794 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2001.00208.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
To understand the biochemical abnormalities that underlie the reduced desquamation observed in dry skin, we analyzed corneodesmosome degradation in normal and winter xerosis skin. Western blotting of total proteins from corneocytes obtained by varnish-strippings from the legs of 56 volunteers with normal (26) or xerotic (30) skin was performed using antibodies specific for (corneo)desmosome proteins. In the whole population, the amounts of desmoglein 1 and plakoglobin were found to be correlated, but were not related to the amounts of corneodesmosin. This suggests simultaneous proteolysis for the former proteins differing from that of corneodesmosin. Neither entire desmoplakins nor any proteolysis-derived fragments were detected. The amounts of corneodesmosin, desmoglein 1, and plakoglobin detected were found to be significantly higher in xerotic compared with normal skin extracts. Conventional and freeze-fracture electron microscopy showed the absence of nonperipheral corneodesmosomes in the upper stratum corneum of normal skin but the presence of a significant number of these structures in the same layer of winter xerosis skin. These results provide a more precise description of the proteolysis of corneodesmosome components in the upper cornified layer of the epidermis. They support previous studies demonstrating the importance of corneodesmosome degradation in desquamation and reveal that the nonperipheral corneodesmosomes, which are totally degraded during maturation of the stratum corneum in normal skin, persist in winter xerosis, probably leading to abnormal desquamation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Simon
- Department of Biology and Pathology of the Cell, INSERM CJF 96-02, Toulouse-Purpan School of Medicine, University of Toulouse III, France
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Wagner H, Kostka KH, Lehr CM, Schaefer UF. Drug distribution in human skin using two different in vitro test systems: comparison with in vivo data. Pharm Res 2000; 17:1475-81. [PMID: 11303956 DOI: 10.1023/a:1007648807195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Two in vitro test systems used to study drug penetration into human skin--the Franz diffusion cell (FD-C) and the Saarbruecken penetration model (SB-M)--were evaluated, and the results were compared with data gained under analogous in vivo conditions. METHODS Excised human skin was used in all in vitro experiments. Flufenamic acid dissolved in wool alcohols ointment, was chosen as a model drug, and the preparation was applied using 'infinite dose' conditions. To acquire quantitative information about the drug penetration, the skin was segmented into surface parallel sections at the end of each experiment, first by tape stripping the stratum corneum (SC), and second by cutting the deeper skin layers with a cryomicrotome. The flufenamic acid was extracted from each sample and assayed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). For in vivo experiments, only the tape stripping technique was used. RESULTS a) Drug penetration into the SC: In both in vitro test systems the total drug amounts detected in the SC were found to increase over the different incubation times. Similar conditions were obtained in vivo, but on a lower level. Using Michaelis-Menten kinetics, the m(max) value was calculated for the skin of two donors. The relations of the m(max) values for the FD-C and the SB-M closely correspond (1.26 [donor 1] and 1.29 [donor 2]). A direct linear correlation of the drug amount in the SC and the time data were found for in vivo with both in vitro test systems. b) Drug penetration into the deeper skin layers: The detected drug amounts in the deeper skin layers continuously increased with the incubation time in the SB-M, while in the FD-C, only very small drug amounts were observed after incubation times of 30 and 60 minutes. It was also noticed, that the drug amounts rose steeply at time points 3 and 6 hours. Additional studies showed a remarkable penetration of water into the skin from the basolateral acceptor compartment in the FD-C. This could explain the different drug transport into the deeper skin layers between the two in vitro test systems. CONCLUSIONS Both in vitro models showed comparable results for the drug penetration into the SC and a robust correlation with in vitro data. Different results were obtained for the deeper skin layers. Whether a correlation between in vitro and in vivo data is also possible here has to be investigated by further experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Wagner
- Dept. of Biopharmaceutics and Pharm Technology, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany
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Octyl glucoside as a tool to induce structural modifications in the stratum corneum. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0927-7757(99)00524-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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López O, Cócera M, Campos L, de la Maza A, Coderch L, Parra J. Use of wide and small angle X-ray diffraction to study the modifications in the stratum corneum induced by octyl glucoside. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0927-7757(99)00245-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Abstract
The stratum corneum is composed of cornified keratinocytes, joined together with corneodesmosomes and embedded in the relatively hydrophobic intercellular substance. Formation of this horny layer and its constant desquamation are fundamental processes leading to the establishment of an efficient epidermal barrier. We examined structural changes occurring in the stratum corneum ex vivo, in order to better understand the mechanisms regulating corneocyte desquamation at the epidermal surface and influencing percutaneous penetration of exogenous substances. Morphologic modifications were induced by occlusion, increasing the tissue hydration, or by application of propylene glycol, a hydrophilic solvent of small molecular size. Distribution of the major epidermal antigens, markers of terminal differentiation, was studied immunohistochemically and showed no modification related to the tissue alteration. Skin samples were fixed in paraformaldehyde and either postfixed in OsO4 and embedded in Epon or postfixed in RuO4 and embedded in epoxy and acrylic resins. Structural composition and spatial organization of the elements present in the intercorneocyte spaces were evaluated ultrastructurally, with special attention paid to the fate of corneodesmosomes. Our results suggest that the spontaneous organization of lipids excreted into the intercellular spaces and constitution of the lamellar multilayers in the lower stratum corneum are at the origin of partition of the intercellular compartment to the hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains. The latter, compatible with the proteinic contents, seem to be displaced by the hydrophobic components undergoing reorganization, towards the invariable hydrophilic foci represented by corneodesmosomes. This mechanism may be involved in the delivery of proteolytic enzymes, thus contributing to the progressive degradation of corneodesmosomal proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Haftek
- INSERM U.346/CNRS, Human Skin and Immunity, E. Herriot Hospital, Lyon, France.
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