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Robergs R, O’Malley B, Torrens S, Siegler J. The missing hydrogen ion, part-2: Where the evidence leads to. SPORTS MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2024; 6:94-100. [PMID: 38463661 PMCID: PMC10918345 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2024.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this manuscript was to present the evidence for why cells do not produce metabolic acids. In addition, evidence that opposes common viewpoints and arguments used to support the cellular production of lactic acid (HLa) or liver keto-acids have been provided. Organic chemistry reveals that many molecules involved in cellular energy catabolism contain functional groups classified as acids. The two main acidic functional groups of these molecules susceptible to ∼H+ release are the carboxyl and phosphoryl structures, though the biochemistry and organic chemistry of molecules having these structures reveal they are produced in a non-acidic ionic (negatively charged) structure, thereby preventing pH dependent ∼H+ release. Added evidence from the industrial production of HLa further reveals that lactate (La-) is produced followed by an acidification step that converts La- to HLa due to pH dependent ∼H+ association. Interestingly, there is a plentiful list of other molecules that are classified as acids and compared to HLa have similar values for their H+ dissociation constant (pKd). For many metabolic conditions, the cumulative turnover of these molecules is far higher than for La-. The collective evidence documents the non-empirical basis for the construct of the cellular production of HLa, or any other metabolic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Robergs
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, 4059, Australia
| | - Bridgette O’Malley
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, 4059, Australia
| | - Sam Torrens
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, 4059, Australia
| | - Jason Siegler
- ASU Health Futures Center, College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, 6161 East Mayo Blvd, Phoenix, 85054, Arizona, USA
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Kilpatrick H, Bush E, Lockard C, Zhou X, Coolbaugh C, Damon B. Quantitative Muscle Fascicle Tractography Using Brightness-Mode Ultrasound. J Appl Biomech 2023; 39:421-431. [PMID: 37793655 PMCID: PMC11304077 DOI: 10.1123/jab.2022-0270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
A muscle's architecture, defined as the geometric arrangement of its fibers with respect to its mechanical line of action, impacts its abilities to produce force and shorten or lengthen under load. Ultrasound and other noninvasive imaging methods have contributed significantly to our understanding of these structure-function relationships. The goal of this work was to develop a MATLAB toolbox for tracking and mathematically representing muscle architecture at the fascicle scale, based on brightness-mode ultrasound imaging data. The MuscleUS_Toolbox allows user-performed segmentation of a region of interest and automated modeling of local fascicle orientation; calculation of streamlines between aponeuroses of origin and insertion; and quantification of fascicle length, pennation angle, and curvature. A method is described for optimizing the fascicle orientation modeling process, and the capabilities of the toolbox for quantifying and visualizing fascicle architecture are illustrated in the human tibialis anterior muscle. The toolbox is freely available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Kilpatrick
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Emily Bush
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Carly Lockard
- Carle Clinical Imaging Research Program, Stephens Family Clinical Research Institute, Carle Health, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Xingyu Zhou
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Carle Clinical Imaging Research Program, Stephens Family Clinical Research Institute, Carle Health, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Crystal Coolbaugh
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Bruce Damon
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Carle Clinical Imaging Research Program, Stephens Family Clinical Research Institute, Carle Health, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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3
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Werkhausen A, Gløersen Ø, Nordez A, Paulsen G, Bojsen-Møller J, Seynnes OR. Linking muscle architecture and function in vivo: conceptual or methodological limitations? PeerJ 2023; 11:e15194. [PMID: 37077309 PMCID: PMC10108853 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Despite the clear theoretical link between sarcomere arrangement and force production, the relationship between muscle architecture and function remain ambiguous in vivo. Methods We used two frequently used ultrasound-based approaches to assess the relationships between vastus lateralis architecture parameters obtained in three common conditions of muscle lengths and contractile states, and the mechanical output of the muscle in twenty-one healthy subjects. The relationship between outcomes obtained in different conditions were also examined. Muscle architecture was analysed in panoramic ultrasound scans at rest with the knee fully extended and in regular scans at an angle close to maximum force (60°), at rest and under maximum contraction. Isokinetic and isometric strength tests were used to estimate muscle force production at various fascicle velocities. Results Measurements of fascicle length, pennation angle and thickness obtained under different experimental conditions correlated moderately with each other (r = 0.40-.74). Fascicle length measured at 60° at rest correlated with force during high-velocity knee extension (r = 0.46 at 400° s-1) and joint work during isokinetic knee extension (r = 0.44 at 200° s-1 and r = 0.57 at 100° s-1). Muscle thickness was related to maximum force for all measurement methods (r = 0.44-0.73). However, we found no significant correlations between fascicle length or pennation angle and any measures of muscle force or work. Most correlations between architecture and force were stronger when architecture was measured at rest close to optimal length. Conclusion These findings reflect methodological limitations of current approaches to measure fascicle length and pennation angle in vivo. They also highlight the limited value of static architecture measurements when reported in isolation or without direct experimental context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Werkhausen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Øyvind Gløersen
- Smart Sensors and Microsystems, SINTEF Digital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Antoine Nordez
- Movement - Interactions - Performance, MIP, Nantes Université, Nantes, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, IUF, France
| | - Gøran Paulsen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jens Bojsen-Møller
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Olivier R. Seynnes
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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4
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Lee KL, Oh TW, Gil YC, Kim HJ. Correlation between muscle architecture and anaerobic power in athletes involved in different sports. Sci Rep 2021; 11:13332. [PMID: 34172797 PMCID: PMC8233346 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92831-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Athletes cultivate highly developed muscles based on their sport category, creating a body shape that matches the characteristics of that sports category. We tested the significance of the correlation between muscle development characteristics and anaerobic power in athletes to build a database for each category. Fifty-eight college athletes participated in this study. To assess muscle characteristics, muscle thickness (MT) and fascicle angle (FA) were measured by ultrasonography (US) in lower limb. Furthermore, anaerobic power was measured with the Wingate test. Analysis of the correlation between muscle structure and anaerobic power revealed significant differences between the sports categories, except for the MT of the medial head of gastrocnemius (Gm), lateral head of gastrocnemius, and FA of Gm. A significant difference was observed for all parameters, except for the arrival time to peak power in the anaerobic power items; in particular, a high degree of correlation in mean power/kg and peak power/kg was observed. A similar tendency was observed in the correlation between muscle structure and anaerobic power in most sports categories, but certain muscle characteristic factors were prominent in each sport. Based on these, it is possible to contribute to predicting and promoting athletic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyu-Lim Lee
- Department of Oral Biology, Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Tae-Woong Oh
- Department of Sports Leisure, Yongin University, 134 Yongindaehak-ro, Cheoin-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, 17092, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Chun Gil
- Department of Anatomy, Chungbuk National University School of Medicine, 1 Chungdae-ro, Seowon-gu, Cheongju, Chungcheongbuk-do, South Korea
| | - Hee-Jin Kim
- Department of Oral Biology, Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.
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5
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McKenna C, Keogh K, Porter RK, Waters SM, Cormican P, Kenny DA. An examination of skeletal muscle and hepatic tissue transcriptomes from beef cattle divergent for residual feed intake. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8942. [PMID: 33903612 PMCID: PMC8076192 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87842-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The selection of cattle with enhanced feed efficiency is of importance with regard to reducing feed costs in the beef industry. Global transcriptome profiling was undertaken on liver and skeletal muscle biopsies from Simmental heifers and bulls divergent for residual feed intake (RFI), a widely acknowledged feed efficiency phenotype, in order to identify genes that may be associated with this trait. We identified 5 genes (adj. p < 0.1) to be differentially expressed in skeletal muscle between high and low RFI heifers with all transcripts involved in oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial homeostasis. A total of 11 genes (adj. p < 0. 1) were differentially expressed in liver tissue between high and low RFI bulls with differentially expressed genes related to amino and nucleotide metabolism as well as endoplasmic reticulum protein processing. No genes were identified as differentially expressed in either heifer liver or bull muscle analyses. Results from this study show that the molecular control of RFI in young cattle is modified according to gender, which may be attributable to differences in physiological maturity between heifers and bulls of the same age. Despite this we have highlighted a number of genes that may hold potential as molecular biomarkers for RFI cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare McKenna
- Animal and Bioscience Research Department, Teagasc Grange, Dunsany, C15 PW93, Co. Meath, Ireland.,School of Biochemistry & Immunology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, D02 R590, Ireland
| | - Kate Keogh
- Animal and Bioscience Research Department, Teagasc Grange, Dunsany, C15 PW93, Co. Meath, Ireland
| | - Richard K Porter
- School of Biochemistry & Immunology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, D02 R590, Ireland
| | - Sinead M Waters
- Animal and Bioscience Research Department, Teagasc Grange, Dunsany, C15 PW93, Co. Meath, Ireland
| | - Paul Cormican
- Animal and Bioscience Research Department, Teagasc Grange, Dunsany, C15 PW93, Co. Meath, Ireland
| | - David A Kenny
- Animal and Bioscience Research Department, Teagasc Grange, Dunsany, C15 PW93, Co. Meath, Ireland.
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Ema R, Akagi R, Wakahara T, Kawakami Y. Training-induced changes in architecture of human skeletal muscles: Current evidence and unresolved issues. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.7600/jpfsm.5.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryoichi Ema
- Graduate School of Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
| | - Ryota Akagi
- College of Systems Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology
| | - Taku Wakahara
- Faculty of Health & Sports Science, Doshisha University
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Increase in vastus lateralis aponeurosis width induced by resistance training: implications for a hypertrophic model of pennate muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol 2014; 115:309-16. [PMID: 25294665 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-3012-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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8
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Stephensen D, Drechsler WI, Scott OM. Influence of ankle plantar flexor muscle architecture and strength on gait in boys with haemophilia in comparison to typically developing children. Haemophilia 2013; 20:413-20. [DOI: 10.1111/hae.12317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. Stephensen
- School of Health, Sport and Bioscience; University of East London; London UK
| | - W. I. Drechsler
- School of Health, Sport and Bioscience; University of East London; London UK
| | - O. M. Scott
- School of Health, Sport and Bioscience; University of East London; London UK
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9
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Cronin NJ, Prilutsky BI, Lichtwark GA, Maas H. Does ankle joint power reflect type of muscle action of soleus and gastrocnemius during walking in cats and humans? J Biomech 2013; 46:1383-6. [PMID: 23538001 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to highlight the difficulties of identifying shortening and lengthening contractions based on analysis of power produced by resultant joint moments. For that purpose, we present net ankle joint powers and muscle fascicle/muscle-tendon unit (MTU) velocities for medial gastrocnemius (MG) and soleus (SO) muscles during walking in species of different size (humans and cats). For the cat, patterns of ankle joint power and MTU velocity of MG and SO during stance were similar: negative power (ankle moment×angular velocity<0), indicating absorption of mechanical energy, was associated with MTU lengthening, and positive power (generation of mechanical energy) was found during MTU shortening. This was also found for the general fascicle velocity pattern in SO. In contrast, substantial differences between ankle joint power and fascicle velocity patterns were observed for MG muscle. In humans, like cats, the patterns of ankle joint power and MTU velocity of SO and MG were similar. Unlike the cat, there were substantial differences between patterns of fascicle velocity and ankle joint power during stance in both muscles. These results indicate that during walking, only a small fraction of mechanical work of the ankle moment is either generated or absorbed by the muscle fascicles, thus confirming the contribution of in-series elastic structures and/or energy transfer via two-joint muscles. We conclude that ankle joint negative power does not necessarily indicate eccentric action of muscle fibers and that positive power cannot be exclusively attributed to muscle concentric action, especially in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil J Cronin
- Neuromuscular Research Centre, Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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10
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Kwah LK, Pinto RZ, Diong J, Herbert RD. Reliability and validity of ultrasound measurements of muscle fascicle length and pennation in humans: a systematic review. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2013; 114:761-9. [PMID: 23305989 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01430.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultrasound imaging is widely used to measure architectural features of human skeletal muscles in vivo. We systematically reviewed studies of the reliability and validity of two-dimensional ultrasound measurement of muscle fascicle lengths or pennation angles in human skeletal muscles. A comprehensive search was conducted in June 2011. Thirty-six reliability studies and six validity studies met the inclusion criteria. Data from these studies indicate that ultrasound measurements of muscle fascicle lengths are reliable across a broad range of experimental conditions [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and r values were always > 0.6, and coefficient of variation values were always < 10%]. The reliability of measurements of pennation angles is broadly similar (ICC and r values were always > 0.5 and coefficient of variation values were always < 14%). Data on validity are less extensive and probably less robust, but suggest that measurement of fascicle lengths and pennation angles are accurate (ICC > 0.7) under certain conditions, such as when large limb muscles are imaged in a relaxed state and the limb or joint remains stationary. Future studies on validity should consider ways to test for the validity of two-dimensional ultrasound imaging in contracted or moving muscles and the best method of probe alignment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Khim Kwah
- Australian Catholic University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Rafael Z. Pinto
- The George Institute for Global Health, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; and
| | - Joanna Diong
- The George Institute for Global Health, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; and
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11
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Ema R, Wakahara T, Mogi Y, Miyamoto N, Komatsu T, Kanehisa H, Kawakami Y. In vivomeasurement of human rectus femoris architecture by ultrasonography: validity and applicability. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2013; 33:267-73. [DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryoichi Ema
- Graduate School of Sport Sciences; Waseda University; Saitama; Japan
| | - Taku Wakahara
- Faculty of Sport Sciences; Waseda University; Saitama; Japan
| | - Yasuyoshi Mogi
- Graduate School of Sport Sciences; Waseda University; Saitama; Japan
| | | | - Toshihiko Komatsu
- Center for Education in Liberal Arts and Sciences, Osaka University; Osaka; Japan
| | - Hiroaki Kanehisa
- National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya; Kagoshima; Japan
| | - Yasuo Kawakami
- Faculty of Sport Sciences; Waseda University; Saitama; Japan
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12
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13
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STEPHENSEN D, DRECHSLER W, SCOTT O. Comparison of muscle strength and in-vivo muscle morphology in young children with haemophilia and those of age-matched peers. Haemophilia 2011; 18:e302-10. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2516.2011.02705.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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ASAKAWA DEANNAS, PAPPAS GEORGEP, DRACE JOHNE, DELP SCOTTL. APONEUROSIS LENGTH AND FASCICLE INSERTION ANGLES OF THE BICEPS BRACHII. J MECH MED BIOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1142/s0219519402000484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Magnetic resonance images and ultrasound images were used to examine the architecture of the distal biceps brachii muscle in 12 unimpaired subjects. The distal biceps brachii tendon continued as an internal aponeurosis that spanned 34± 4% of the length of the biceps brachii long head muscle on average. The distal muscle fascicles inserted at angles to this aponeurosis; fascicles anterior to the aponeurosis inserted at a significantly greater (p ≤ 0.05) angle (17°) than the fascicles posterior to the aponeurosis (14°) in the distal 2 cm of muscle when the elbow was extended. Mean fascicle insertion angles were on average 3–4° greater with the elbow flexed 90° against a 5% maximum voluntary contraction load as compared to their values with the elbow extended. These data provide the basis for designing experiments to measure muscle and tendon motion in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- DEANNA S. ASAKAWA
- Biomechanical Engineering Division, Mechanical Engineering Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305-3030, USA
- Diagnostic Radiology Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - GEORGE P. PAPPAS
- Biomechanical Engineering Division, Mechanical Engineering Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305-3030, USA
- Diagnostic Radiology Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - JOHN E. DRACE
- Diagnostic Radiology Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - SCOTT L. DELP
- Biomechanical Engineering Division, Mechanical Engineering Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305-3030, USA
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Debernard L, Robert L, Charleux F, Bensamoun SF. Characterization of muscle architecture in children and adults using magnetic resonance elastography and ultrasound techniques. J Biomech 2010; 44:397-401. [PMID: 21074773 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2010] [Accepted: 10/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to characterize the muscle architecture of children and adults using magnetic resonance elastography and ultrasound techniques. Five children (8-12 yr) and seven adults (24-58 yr) underwent both tests on the vastus medialis muscle at relaxed and contracted (10% and 20% of MVC) states. Longitudinal ultrasonic images were performed in the same area as the phase image showing the shear wave's propagation. Two geometrical parameters were defined: the wave angle (α(_MRE)) corresponding to the shear wave propagation and the fascicule angle (α(_US)) tracking the path of fascicles. Moreover, shear modulus was measured at different localizations within the muscle and in the subcutaneous adipose tissue. The association of both techniques demonstrates that the shear wave propagation follows the muscle fascicles path, reflecting the internal muscle architecture. At rest, ultrasound images revealed waves propagating parallel to the children fascicle while adults showed oblique waves corresponding to already oriented (α(_US)=15.4±2.54°) muscle fascicles. In contraction, the waves' propagation were in an oblique direction for children (α(_US_10%MVC)=10.6±2.27°, α(_US_20%MVC)=10.2±2.29°) as well as adults (α(_US_10%MVC)=15.4±2.54°, α(_US_20%MVC)=17.2±2.44°). A stiffness variation (1 kPa) was found between the upper and lower parts of the adult VM muscle and a lower stiffness (1.85±0.17 kPa) was measured in the subcutaneous adipose tissue. This study demonstrates the feasibility of the MRE technique to provide geometrical insights from the children and adults muscles and to characterize different physiological media.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laëtitia Debernard
- Biomechanics and Bioengineery Laboratory, UMR CNRS 6600, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, BP 20529, 60205 Compiègne Cedex, France
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16
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Cronin NJ, af Klint R, Grey MJ, Sinkjaer T. Ultrasonography as a tool to study afferent feedback from the muscle-tendon complex during human walking. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2010; 21:197-207. [PMID: 20833562 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2010.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Revised: 08/06/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, one of the most common tasks in everyday life is walking, and sensory afferent feedback from peripheral receptors, particularly the muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs (GTO), makes an important contribution to the motor control of this task. One factor that can complicate the ability of these receptors to act as length, velocity and force transducers is the complex pattern of interaction between muscle and tendinous tissues, as tendon length is often considerably greater than muscle fibre length in the human lower limb. In essence, changes in muscle-tendon mechanics can influence the firing behaviour of afferent receptors, which may in turn affect the motor control. In this review we first summarise research that has incorporated the use of ultrasound-based techniques to study muscle-tendon interaction, predominantly during walking. We then review recent research that has combined this method with an examination of muscle activation to give a broader insight to neuromuscular interaction during walking. Despite the advances in understanding that these techniques have brought, there is clearly still a need for more direct methods to study both neural and mechanical parameters during human walking in order to unravel the vast complexity of this seemingly simple task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil J Cronin
- School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
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17
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Austin N, Nilwik R, Herzog W. In vivo operational fascicle lengths of vastus lateralis during sub-maximal and maximal cycling. J Biomech 2010; 43:2394-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2009] [Revised: 04/20/2010] [Accepted: 04/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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18
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Padhiar N, Al-Sayeagh H, Chan O, King J, Maffulli N. Pennation angle of the soleus in patients with unilateral Achilles tendinopathy. Disabil Rehabil 2009; 30:1640-5. [DOI: 10.1080/09638280701785916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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19
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Bénard MR, Becher JG, Harlaar J, Huijing PA, Jaspers RT. Anatomical information is needed in ultrasound imaging of muscle to avoid potentially substantial errors in measurement of muscle geometry. Muscle Nerve 2009; 39:652-65. [PMID: 19291798 DOI: 10.1002/mus.21287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This study validates two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound measurements of muscle geometry of the human medial gastrocnemius (GM) and investigates effects of probe orientation on errors in these measurements. Ultrasound scans of GM muscle belly were made both on human cadavers (n = 4) and on subjects in vivo (n = 5). For half of the cadavers, ultrasound scans obtained according to commonly applied criteria of probe orientation deviated 15 degrees from the true fascicle plane. This resulted in errors of fascicle length and fascicle angle up to 14% and 23%, respectively. Fascicle-like structures were detectable over a wide range of probe tilt and rotation angles, but they did not always represent true fascicles. Errors of measurement were either linear or quadratic functions of tilt angle. Similar results were found in vivo. Therefore, we conclude that similar errors are likely to occur for in vivo measurements. For all cadavers, at the distal end of GM, the true fascicle plane was shown to be perpendicular to the distal aponeurosis. Using transverse images of GM to detect the curvature of the deep aponeurosis at the distal end of the muscle belly is a simple strategy to help identify the fascicle plane. For subsequent longitudinal imaging, probe alignment within this plane will help minimize measurement errors of fascicle length, fascicle angle, and muscle thickness. Muscle Nerve, 2009.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno R Bénard
- Research Institute Move, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University, Van der Boechorststraat 9, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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20
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Redl C, Gfoehler M, Pandy MG. Sensitivity of muscle force estimates to variations in muscle–tendon properties. Hum Mov Sci 2007; 26:306-19. [PMID: 17343945 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2007.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the sensitivity of muscle force estimates to changes in some of the parameters which are commonly used to describe models of muscle-tendon actuation. The sensitivity analysis was performed on three parameters: optimal muscle-fiber length, muscle physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), and tendon rest length. The muscles selected for the analysis were posterior gluteus medius/minimus, vasti, soleus, and sartorius. Each parameter was perturbed from its nominal value, and an optimization problem was solved to determine the relative influence of each parameter on the calculated values of muscle force. Muscle forces were calculated for a simulated cycle of normal walking. Parameter sensitivity was quantified using two new metrics: an integrated sensitivity ratio, which quantified the effect of changing a single parameter for any muscle on the time history of force developed by that muscle; and a summed cross-sensitivity ratio, which quantified the effect of changing one parameter for any muscle on the time histories of forces developed by all of the other muscles. The results showed that muscle force estimates for walking are most sensitive to changes in tendon rest length and least sensitive to changes in muscle PCSA. For soleus, for example, the integrated sensitivity ratios for tendon rest length were an order of magnitude greater than those for muscle-fiber length and PCSA. For vasti, the integrated sensitivity ratios for tendon rest length were twice as large as those for muscle-fiber length and nearly an order of magnitude greater than those for PCSA. Overall, changes in the tendon rest lengths of vasti and soleus and changes in the fiber length of vasti were most critical to model estimates of muscle force. Our results emphasize the importance of obtaining accurate estimates of tendon rest length and muscle-fiber length, particularly for those actuators that function as prime movers during locomotion (gluteus maximus, gluteus medius/minimus, vasti, soleus, and gastrocnemius).
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Redl
- Research Group Machine Elements and Rehabilitation Engineering, Institute 307/3, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
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21
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Ishikawa M, Dousset E, Avela J, Kyröläinen H, Kallio J, Linnamo V, Kuitunen S, Nicol C, Komi PV. Changes in the soleus muscle architecture after exhausting stretch-shortening cycle exercise in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2006; 97:298-306. [PMID: 16770465 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-006-0180-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This study focused on the architectural changes in the muscle-tendon complex during the immediate and secondary (delayed) reductions of performance (bimodal recovery) caused by an exhaustive rebound type stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) exercise. The isometric plantar flexor torque during maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) was measured together with recording of electromyography (EMG) and ultrasonography from the soleus muscle before (BEF), after (AFT), 2 h (2H), 2 and 8 days (2D, 8D) after the SSC exercise (n=8). The performance variables (MVC torque and EMG activation) followed the bimodal recovery patterns. This was not the case in the changes of the fascicle length and muscle thickness. The relative torque changes in MVC correlated positively (R=0.78, P=0.02) to the corresponding averaged EMG changes between BEF and 2H (BEF-->2H); the significance disappeared in the comparison between 2H and 2D (2H-->2D), during which period MVC showed a secondary reduction. The relative torque changes in MVC showed no correlation with the changes in muscle thickness between BEF-2H. However, this correlation between 2H-2D was negative (R=-0.85, P<0.01). The fascicle shortening/average EMG ratio in MVC increased at 2H, and then decreased more at 2D than 2H (P<0.05). Thus, the secondary performance decline was not related to the corresponding EMG reduction but to the increased muscle thickness, which peaked at 2D. The results suggest clearly that the secondary decline in MVC could be related to the increase in muscle volume.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ishikawa
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35 (LL2), 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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22
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Kawakami Y, Abe T, Kanehisa H, Fukunaga T. Human skeletal muscle size and architecture: Variability and interdependence. Am J Hum Biol 2006; 18:845-8. [PMID: 17039483 DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.20561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Seven hundred and eleven women and men (aged 3-94 years, including normal individuals and highly trained bodybuilders) were tested for the thickness and pennation angles of their triceps brachii (TB), vastus lateralis (VL), and gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscles. The variations of muscle thickness and pennation angles were largest in TB (6-66 mm and 5-55 degrees), followed by VL (8-45 mm and 7-33 degrees) and GM (11-36 mm and 12-33 degrees), and women showed smaller variations than men. These results suggest the existence of muscle- and gender-specificity in the variability of muscle dimensions. Significant positive correlations were observed between muscle thickness and pennation angles (r = 0.81, 0.61, and 0.56, for TB, VL, and GM, respectively), indicating that the size-dependence of the pennation angle is a general feature of pennate muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawakami
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Saitama 359-1192, Japan.
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23
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D'Antona G, Lanfranconi F, Pellegrino MA, Brocca L, Adami R, Rossi R, Moro G, Miotti D, Canepari M, Bottinelli R. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy and structure and function of skeletal muscle fibres in male body builders. J Physiol 2005; 570:611-27. [PMID: 16339176 PMCID: PMC1479884 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2005.101642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Needle biopsy samples were taken from vastus lateralis muscle (VL) of five male body builders (BB, age 27.4+/-0.93 years; mean+/-s.e.m.), who had being performing hypertrophic heavy resistance exercise (HHRE) for at least 2 years, and from five male active, but untrained control subjects (CTRL, age 29.9+/-2.01 years). The following determinations were performed: anatomical cross-sectional area and volume of the quadriceps and VL muscles in vivo by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); myosin heavy chain isoform (MHC) distribution of the whole biopsy samples by SDS-PAGE; cross-sectional area (CSA), force (Po), specific force (Po/CSA) and maximum shortening velocity (Vo) of a large population (n=524) of single skinned muscle fibres classified on the basis of MHC isoform composition by SDS-PAGE; actin sliding velocity (Vf) on pure myosin isoforms by in vitro motility assays. In BB a preferential hypertrophy of fast and especially type 2X fibres was observed. The very large hypertrophy of VL in vivo could not be fully accounted for by single muscle fibre hypertrophy. CSA of VL in vivo was, in fact, 54% larger in BB than in CTRL, whereas mean fibre area was only 14% larger in BB than in CTRL. MHC isoform distribution was shifted towards 2X fibres in BB. Po/CSA was significantly lower in type 1 fibres from BB than in type 1 fibres from CTRL whereas both type 2A and type 2X fibres were significantly stronger in BB than in CTRL. Vo of type 1 fibres and Vf of myosin 1 were significantly lower in BB than in CTRL, whereas no difference was observed among fast fibres and myosin 2A. The findings indicate that skeletal muscle of BB was markedly adapted to HHRE through extreme hypertrophy, a shift towards the stronger and more powerful fibre types and an increase in specific force of muscle fibres. Such adaptations could not be fully accounted for by well known mechanisms of muscle plasticity, i.e. by the hypertrophy of single muscle fibre (quantitative mechanism) and by a regulation of contractile properties of muscle fibres based on MHC isoform content (qualitative mechanism). Two BB subjects took anabolic steroids and three BB subjects did not. The former BB differed from the latter BB mostly for the size of their muscles and muscle fibres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe D'Antona
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Human Physiology unit, University of Pavia, Via Forlanini 6, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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Ishikawa M, Niemelä E, Komi PV. Interaction between fascicle and tendinous tissues in short-contact stretch-shortening cycle exercise with varying eccentric intensities. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2005; 99:217-23. [PMID: 15705735 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01352.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction between fascicle and tendinous tissues (TT) in short-contact drop jumps (DJ) with three different drop heights [low (Low), optimal (OP), and high (High)] was examined with 11 subjects. The ground reaction force (F(z)) and ankle and knee joint angles were measured together with real-time ultrasonography (fascicle length) and electromyographic activities of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) and vastus lateralis (VL) muscles during the movement. With increasing drop height, the braking force and flight time increased from Low to OP (P < 0.05). In High, the braking force increased but the flight time decreased compared with OP (P < 0.05). During contact of Low and OP conditions, the length of muscle-tendon unit and TT underwent lengthening before shortening in both MG and VL muscles. However, the two muscles differed in the fascicle behaviors. The MG fascicles behaved isometrically or shortened, and the VL fascicles underwent lengthening before shortening during contact. In High, the TT lengthening in both muscles decreased compared with OP (P < 0.05). The rapid stretch occurred in the MG fascicles but not in VL fascicles during the braking phase. The elastic recoil ratio decreased in both muscles with increasing the intensity during DJ. These findings demonstrated that TT underwent lengthening before shortening during DJ. However, the efficacy of elastic recoil decreased with increasing the drop intensity. The effective catapult action in TT can be limited by the drop intensity. In addition, the measured muscles behaved differently during DJ, providing evidence that each muscle may have a specific means of fascicle-TT interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ishikawa
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Dept. of Biology of Physical Activity, Univ. of Jyväskylä, Finland
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25
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26
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Reeves ND, Narici MV. Behavior of human muscle fascicles during shortening and lengthening contractions in vivo. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2003; 95:1090-6. [PMID: 12740314 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01046.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the behavior of human muscle fascicles during dynamic contractions. Eight subjects performed maximal isometric dorsiflexion contractions at six ankle joint angles and maximal isokinetic concentric and eccentric contractions at five angular velocities. Tibialis anterior muscle architecture was measured in vivo by use of B-mode ultrasonography. During maximal isometric contraction, fascicle length was shorter and pennation angle larger compared with values at rest (P < 0.01). During isokinetic concentric contractions from 0 to 4.36 rad/s, fascicle length measured at a constant ankle joint angle increased curvilinearly from 49.5 to 69.7 mm (41%; P < 0.01), whereas pennation angle decreased curvilinearly from 14.8 to 9.8 degrees (34%; P < 0.01). During eccentric muscle actions, fascicles contracted quasi-isometrically, independent of angular velocity. The behavior of muscle fascicles during shortening contractions was believed to reflect the degree of stretch applied to the series elastic component, which decreases with increasing contraction velocity. The quasi-isometric behavior of fascicles during eccentric muscle actions suggests that the series elastic component acts as a mechanical buffer during active lengthening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil D Reeves
- Centre for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human Movement, Manchester Metropolitan University, Alsager Campus, UK ST7 2HL.
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Hodges PW, Pengel LHM, Herbert RD, Gandevia SC. Measurement of muscle contraction with ultrasound imaging. Muscle Nerve 2003; 27:682-92. [PMID: 12766979 DOI: 10.1002/mus.10375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 600] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the ability of ultrasonography to estimate muscle activity, we measured architectural parameters (pennation angles, fascicle lengths, and muscle thickness) of several human muscles (tibialis anterior, biceps brachii, brachialis, transversus abdominis, obliquus internus abdominis, and obliquus externus abdominis) during isometric contractions of from 0 to 100% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Concurrently, electromyographic (EMG) activity was measured with surface (tibialis anterior only) or fine-wire electrodes. Most architectural parameters changed markedly with contractions up to 30% MVC but changed little at higher levels of contraction. Thus, ultrasound imaging can be used to detect low levels of muscle activity but cannot discriminate between moderate and strong contractions. Ultrasound measures could reliably detect changes in EMG of as little as 4% MVC (biceps muscle thickness), 5% MVC (brachialis muscle thickness), or 9% MVC (tibialis anterior pennation angle). They were generally less sensitive to changes in abdominal muscle activity, but it was possible to reliably detect contractions of 12% MVC in transversus abdominis (muscle length) and 22% MVC in obliquus internus (muscle thickness). Obliquus externus abdominis thickness did not change consistently with muscle contraction, so ultrasound measures of thickness cannot be used to detect activity of this muscle. Ultrasound imaging can thus provide a noninvasive method of detecting isometric muscle contractions of certain individual muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- P W Hodges
- Prince of Wales Medical Research Institute and the University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2031, Australia.
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28
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Rezasoltani A. The Applicability of Muscle Ultrasonography in Physiotherapy Researches. J Phys Ther Sci 2003. [DOI: 10.1589/jpts.15.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Asghar Rezasoltani
- Shaheed Beheshti Medical University, Faculty of Rehabilitation, Department of Physiotherapy
- LIKES-Research Center for Sports and Health Sciences
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29
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Herbert RD, Moseley AM, Butler JE, Gandevia SC. Change in length of relaxed muscle fascicles and tendons with knee and ankle movement in humans. J Physiol 2002; 539:637-45. [PMID: 11882694 PMCID: PMC2290150 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2001.012756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultrasonography was used to measure changes in length of muscle fascicles in relaxed human tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius during passively imposed changes in joint angle. Changes in the length of muscle fascicles were compared to changes in the length of the whole muscle-tendon units calculated from joint angles and anthropometric data. Relaxed muscle fascicles underwent much smaller changes in length than their muscle-tendon units. On average, muscle fascicles in tibialis anterior 'saw' 55 +/- 13 % (mean +/- S.D.) of the total change in muscle-tendon length. This indicates nearly half of the total change in muscle-tendon length was taken up by stretch of tendon. In gastrocnemius, which has relatively long tendons, only 27 +/- 9 % of the total change in muscle-tendon length was transmitted to muscle fascicles. Thus, the tendency for passive movement to be taken up by the tendon was greater for gastrocnemius than tibialis anterior (P = 0.002). For these muscles, the relatively large changes in tendon length across much of the physiological range of muscle-tendon lengths could not wholly be explained by tendon slackness, changes in fibre pennation, or stretch or contraction history of the muscle. Our data confirm that when joints are moved passively, length changes 'seen' by muscle fascicles can be much less than changes in the distance between muscle origin and insertion. This occurs because tendons undergo significant changes in length, even at very low forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Herbert
- Prince of Wales Medical Research Institute, University of New South Wales, Randwick 2031, Sydney, Australia
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Blazevich AJ, Giorgi A. Effect of testosterone administration and weight training on muscle architecture. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33:1688-93. [PMID: 11581553 DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200110000-00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to assess muscle architecture changes in subjects who were administered supraphysiologic doses of testosterone enanthate (TE) and concurrently performed heavy resistance training. METHODS Ten subjects were randomly selected from the 21 subjects who participated in a previously published study (12). Subjects were allocated to one of two groups as per Giorgi et al. (12) and received either a saline-based placebo (nonTE) or a 3.5-mg.kg-1 body weight dose of TE by deep intramuscular injection once a week for 12 wk. Subjects also performed heavy resistance training using exercises that targeted the triceps brachii muscle. Before and after the training period, free-weight one-repetition-maximum (1-RM) bench press strength was tested, muscle thickness and pennation of the triceps brachii lateralis were measured using ultrasound imaging, and fascicle length was estimated from ultrasound photographs. RESULTS There were no significant between-group differences in muscle thickness changes despite a trend toward increased thickness in TE subjects (TE, 23.5%, vs nonTE, 13.8%). However, 1-RM bench press performance and muscle pennation increased significantly in TE subjects compared with nonTE subjects (P < 0.05). There was also a trend toward longer fascicle lengths in the muscles of nonTE subjects. CONCLUSION The results of the present study suggest that the use of TE in conjunction with heavy resistance training is associated with muscle architecture changes that are commonly associated with high-force production. Since there was little difference between the groups in muscle thickness, changes in pennation and possibly fascicle length may have contributed to strength gains seen in TE subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Blazevich
- Department of Sport Sciences, Brunel University, Osterley Campus, Isleworth, Middlesex TW7 5DU, United Kingdom.
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Binzoni T, Bianchi S, Hanquinet S, Kaelin A, Sayegh Y, Dumont M, Jéquier S. Human gastrocnemius medialis pennation angle as a function of age: from newborn to the elderly. JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND APPLIED HUMAN SCIENCE 2001; 20:293-8. [PMID: 11759268 DOI: 10.2114/jpa.20.293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to quantify changes in human skeletal muscle pennation angle (F theta) values during growth and adult life. The human gastrocnemius medialis muscle of 162 subjects (96 males and 66 females) in the age range 0-70 years was scanned with ultrasonography. The subjects were laying prone, at rest, with the ankle maintained at 90 degrees with all muscles relaxed. F theta increased monotonically starting from birth (0 years) and reached a stable value after the adolescent growth spurt. There was a significant (p < 0.05) linear relationship between F theta and muscle thickness (TK). F theta = 0.84 (+/- 0.09) * TK + 3.15 (+/- 1.13). Human gastrocnemius medialis F theta and TK data found in the literature seem to fit the F theta-TK plot in a coherent manner, independent of the physiological or anatomical characteristics of the subject. The present findings indicate that F theta is not a constant parameter but evolves, as is the case for bone length and height, as a function of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Binzoni
- Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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Aagaard P, Andersen JL, Dyhre-Poulsen P, Leffers AM, Wagner A, Magnusson SP, Halkjaer-Kristensen J, Simonsen EB. A mechanism for increased contractile strength of human pennate muscle in response to strength training: changes in muscle architecture. J Physiol 2001; 534:613-23. [PMID: 11454977 PMCID: PMC2278719 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.t01-1-00613.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 426] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2000] [Accepted: 03/16/2001] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
1. In human pennate muscle, changes in anatomical cross-sectional area (CSA) or volume caused by training or inactivity may not necessarily reflect the change in physiological CSA, and thereby in maximal contractile force, since a simultaneous change in muscle fibre pennation angle could also occur. 2. Eleven male subjects undertook 14 weeks of heavy-resistance strength training of the lower limb muscles. Before and after training anatomical CSA and volume of the human quadriceps femoris muscle were assessed by use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), muscle fibre pennation angle (theta(p)) was measured in the vastus lateralis (VL) by use of ultrasonography, and muscle fibre CSA (CSA(fibre)) was obtained by needle biopsy sampling in VL. 3. Anatomical muscle CSA and volume increased with training from 77.5 +/- 3.0 to 85.0 +/- 2.7 cm(2) and 1676 +/- 63 to 1841 +/- 57 cm(3), respectively (+/- S.E.M.). Furthermore, VL pennation angle increased from 8.0 +/- 0.4 to 10.7 +/- 0.6 deg and CSA(fibre) increased from 3754 +/- 271 to 4238 +/- 202 microm (2). Isometric quadriceps strength increased from 282.6 +/- 11.7 to 327.0 +/- 12.4 N m. 4. A positive relationship was observed between theta(p) and quadriceps volume prior to training (r = 0.622). Multifactor regression analysis revealed a stronger relationship when theta(p) and CSA(fibre) were combined (R = 0.728). Post-training increases in CSA(fibre) were related to the increase in quadriceps volume (r = 0.749). 5. Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform distribution (type I and II) remained unaltered with training. 6. VL muscle fibre pennation angle was observed to increase in response to resistance training. This allowed single muscle fibre CSA and maximal contractile strength to increase more (+16 %) than anatomical muscle CSA and volume (+10 %). 7. Collectively, the present data suggest that the morphology, architecture and contractile capacity of human pennate muscle are interrelated, in vivo. This interaction seems to include the specific adaptation responses evoked by intensive resistance training.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Aagaard
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Medical Physiology 16.5.5, Panum Institute, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200 Kbh-N, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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33
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Rezasoltani A. Individual Cervical Muscle Function in Biomechanical Studies: A Review of Literature. J Phys Ther Sci 2001. [DOI: 10.1589/jpts.13.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Juul-Kristensen B, Bojsen-Møller F, Holst E, Ekdahl C. Comparison of muscle sizes and moment arms of two rotator cuff muscles measured by ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ULTRASOUND : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE EUROPEAN FEDERATION OF SOCIETIES FOR ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2000; 11:161-73. [PMID: 10874191 DOI: 10.1016/s0929-8266(00)00084-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose was to investigate ultrasound (US) and anthropometry (AN) as valid alternatives to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) regarding muscle size characteristics of two rotator cuff muscles. METHODS Eight healthy females (age 27-54 yrs.) went through MRI and US scannings and AN measurements, where muscle thickness, cross-section area (CSA), moment arm, muscle length and width were measured on supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscle. RESULTS The agreement between the methods was very satisfactory for CSA, and satisfactory for muscle thickness, moment arm, muscle length and width, with a mean difference below 2 mm in thickness and below 5 mm in muscle length and width. Volume could be estimated satisfactory in supraspinatus muscle, but not in infraspinatus muscle, where volume had to be calculated from thickness, length and width. As a significant relation was found in the MRI measurements between thickness and CSA, thickness measurements may replace CSA in inaccessible muscles. CONCLUSIONS US was a valid method in measuring CSA, muscle thickness and moment arm. Combined with anthropometric measures of muscle length and width, volume can be calculated, which is important when defining the physiological cross-sectional area and muscle function. Further development and validation of the method is needed, however.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Juul-Kristensen
- Department of Physiology, National Institute of Occupational Health, Lersø Parkallé 105, Dk-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Giorgi A, Weatherby RP, Murphy PW. Muscular strength, body composition and health responses to the use of testosterone enanthate: a double blind study. J Sci Med Sport 1999; 2:341-55. [PMID: 10710012 DOI: 10.1016/s1440-2440(99)80007-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
To determine the effect the steroid, testosterone enanthate (TE) had on upper body strength, body composition and health. Twenty one male weight training subjects were randomly assigned in a double blind method to either a 3.5 mg(-1) x kg(-1) TE (n=11) or placebo (n=10) weight training group. The subjects were monitored during a 12 week administration phase and a subsequent 12 week follow up phase. Subjects were tested on a number of strength and size measurements, whilst having their health monitored. The results from the study revealed that the testosterone/weight training group improved significantly (p<0.05) more than the placebo/weight training group during and immediately after the administration phase on a 1 repetition maximum bench press. With regards to body composition, body weight, arm girth and rectus femoris circumference all increased significantly greater in the TE group compared to the placebo. Furthermore, the abdomen skinfold showed significant decreases in the TE group compared to the placebo group at post testing, follow up mid testing and the follow up post testing occasions. With the exception of the abdomen skinfold no within or between group differences were evident following a cycling off period of 12 weeks. Changes to baseline health indicators were reported in some subjects following testosterone usage. This included an average elevation in systolic blood pressure in all TE subjects by 10 mm Hg, a mild increase in hereditary frontal alopecia, increased muscle tightness (hamstrings and pectorals), a mild increase in libido over the first two weeks with a subsequent fall to normal, mild acne, subjective changes to personality including an increase in aggression, irritability and positive mood responses. Consequently, moderate doses of TE combined with weight training can result in short term significant changes in upper body strength and body composition, with corresponding changes to baseline health in some individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Giorgi
- School of Exercise Science and Sports Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia
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Narici M. Human skeletal muscle architecture studied in vivo by non-invasive imaging techniques: functional significance and applications. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 1999; 9:97-103. [PMID: 10098710 DOI: 10.1016/s1050-6411(98)00041-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The internal architecture plays an essential role in determining the functional features of skeletal muscle. Both length-force and force-velocity relationships depend on the spatial arrangement of muscle fibres in skeletal muscle. The degree of muscle pennation determines both the amount of contractile tissue packed along the tendons and fibre length, and is reflected by the force-generating capacity and shortening velocity of the muscle and by the elastic properties of the muscle-tendon complex. Until recently, knowledge on human muscle architecture was based on measurements performed on cadavers, whose muscle fibres were often shrunk by the preserving medium and by age. With the introduction of non-invasive imaging techniques, it has become possible to study muscle architecture in vivo at rest and the changes thereof upon contraction. This paper discusses the applications of these techniques, namely ultrasonography and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, and their relevance in physiology and biomechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Narici
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Tecnologie Biomediche Avanzate, Reparto Fisiologia, Milan, Italy.
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Maganaris CN, Baltzopoulos V, Sargeant AJ. In vivo measurements of the triceps surae complex architecture in man: implications for muscle function. J Physiol 1998; 512 ( Pt 2):603-14. [PMID: 9763648 PMCID: PMC2231202 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.603be.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
1. The objectives of this study were to (1) quantify experimentally in vivo changes in pennation angle, fibre length and muscle thickness in the triceps surae complex in man in response to changes in ankle position and isometric plantarflexion moment and (2) compare changes in the above muscle architectural characteristics occurring in the transition from rest to a given isometric plantarflexion intensity with the estimations of a planimetric muscle model assuming constant thickness and straight muscle fibres. 2. The gastrocnemius medialis (GM), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and soleus (SOL) muscles of six males were scanned with ultrasonography at different sites along and across the muscle belly at rest and during maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) trials at ankle angles of -15 deg (dorsiflexed direction), 0 deg (neutral position), +15 deg (plantarflexed direction) and +30 deg. Additional images were taken at 80, 60, 40 and 20% of MVC at an ankle angle of 0 deg. 3. In all three muscles and all scanned sites, as ankle angle increased from -15 to +30 deg, pennation increased (by 6-12 deg, 39-67%, P < 0.01 at rest and 9-16 deg, 29-43%, P < 0.01 during MVC) and fibre length decreased (by 15-28 mm, 32-34%, P < 0.01 at rest and 8-10 mm, 27-30%, P < 0.05 during MVC). Thickness in GL and SOL increased during MVC compared with rest (by 5-7 mm, 36-47%, P < 0.01 in GL and 6-7 mm, 38-47%, P < 0.01 in SOL) while thickness of GM did not differ (P > 0.05) between rest and MVC. 4. At any given ankle angle the model underestimated changes in GL and SOL occurring in the transition from rest to MVC in pennation angle (by 9-12 deg, 24-38%, P < 0.01 in GL and 9-14 deg, 25-28%, P < 0.01 in SOL) and fibre length (by 6-15 mm, 22-39%, P < 0.01 in GL and 6-8 mm, 23-24%, P < 0.01 in SOL). 5. The findings of the study indicate that the mechanical output of muscle as estimated by the model used may be unrealistic due to errors in estimating the changes in muscle architecture during contraction compared with rest.
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Affiliation(s)
- C N Maganaris
- Biomechanics and Neuromuscular Biology Research Groups, Manchester Metropolitan University, Alsager ST7 2HL, UK.
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38
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Kawakami Y, Ichinose Y, Fukunaga T. Architectural and functional features of human triceps surae muscles during contraction. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1998; 85:398-404. [PMID: 9688711 DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1998.85.2.398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 350] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Architectural properties of the triceps surae muscles were determined in vivo for six men. The ankle was positioned at 15 degrees dorsiflexion (-15 degrees) and 0, 15, and 30 degrees plantar flexion, with the knee set at 0, 45, and 90 degrees. At each position, longitudinal ultrasonic images of the medial (MG) and lateral (LG) gastrocnemius and soleus (Sol) muscles were obtained while the subject was relaxed (passive) and performed maximal isometric plantar flexion (active), from which fascicle lengths and angles with respect to the aponeuroses were determined. In the passive condition, fascicle lengths changed from 59, 65, and 43 mm (knee, 0 degrees; ankle, -15 degrees) to 32, 41, and 30 mm (knee, 90 degrees ankle, 30 degrees) for MG, LG, and Sol, respectively. Fascicle shortening by contraction was more pronounced at longer fascicle lengths. MG had greatest fascicle angles, ranging from 22 to 67 degrees, and was in a very disadvantageous condition when the knee was flexed at 90 degrees, irrespective of ankle positions. Different lengths and angles of fascicles, and their changes by contraction, might be related to differences in force-producing capabilities of the muscles and elastic characteristics of tendons and aponeuroses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawakami
- Department of Life Sciences (Sports Sciences), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153, Japan.
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39
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Abstract
The present study focused on architectural factors which are considered to influence the linkage of muscle fiber and joint actions. By means of real-time ultrasonography we can observe clearly and noninvasively in vivo the movement of fascicle and aponeurosis in human muscle and measure directly the changes in pennation angle and length of fascicle during muscle contraction. During dorsi and plantar flexion without load the movement of tendinous tissue in human tibialis anterior muscle (TA) appeared to synchronize with the displacement of the ankle joint, indicating that the muscle tendon complexes are stiff relative to the applied force, which is fairly small in the case of foot shaking motion. On the other hand, when the ankle joint was fixed and the TA contracted 'statically' the ultrasonic echo from deep aponeurosis in the TA was observed to move proximally, indicating the elastic component (i.e. mainly tendinous tissue) was stretched significantly by the contraction force of muscle. In the case of the kneejoint, a length of fascicle in vastus lateralis decreased by 18% with the extension of the knee passively from a 100 degrees flexed position. When the knee extensors contracted 'statically' the fascicle length decreased at every joint angles and its magnitude was greater (30%) when the knee was closer to full extension than (5%) at the flexed positions. The present results clearly show that the architecture of actively contracting muscle fibers differ considerably than that which occurs when movement is passively induced. The use of cadaver data in the study of architecture and modeling of muscle functions would result in inaccurate, and in some cases even erroneous results.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Fukunaga
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Meguro, Japan
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Fukunaga T, Ichinose Y, Ito M, Kawakami Y, Fukashiro S. Determination of fascicle length and pennation in a contracting human muscle in vivo. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1997; 82:354-8. [PMID: 9029238 DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1997.82.1.354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We have developed a technique to determine fascicle length in human vastus lateralis muscle in vivo by using ultrasonography. When the subjects had the knee fully extended passively from a position of 110 degree flexion (relaxed condition), the fascicle length decreased from 133 to 97 mm on average. During static contractions at 10% of maximal voluntary contraction strength (tensed condition), fascicle shortening was more pronounced (from 126 to 67 mm), especially when the knee was closer to full extension. Similarly, as the knee was extended, the angle of pennation (fascicle angle, defined as the angle between fascicles and aponeurosis) increased (relaxed, from 14 to 18 degrees; tensed, from 14 to 21 degrees), and a greater increase in the pennation angle was observed in the tensed than in the relaxed condition when the knee was close to extension (< 40 degrees). We conclude that there are differences in fascicle lengths and pennation angles when the muscle is in a relaxed and isometrically tensed conditions and that the differences are affected by joint angles, at least at the submaximal contraction level.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Fukunaga
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Japan
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41
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Narici MV, Binzoni T, Hiltbrand E, Fasel J, Terrier F, Cerretelli P. In vivo human gastrocnemius architecture with changing joint angle at rest and during graded isometric contraction. J Physiol 1996; 496 ( Pt 1):287-97. [PMID: 8910216 PMCID: PMC1160844 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.1996.sp021685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 369] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
1. Human gastrocnemius medialis architecture was analysed in vivo, by ultrasonography, as a function of joint angle at rest and during voluntary isometric contractions up to the maximum force (MCV). maximum force (MVC). 2. At rest, as ankle joint angle increased from 90 to 150 deg, pennation increased from 15.8 to 27.7 deg, fibre length decreased from 57.0 to 34.0 mm and the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) increased from 42.1 to 63.5 cm2. 3. From rest to MVC, at a fixed ankle joint angle of 110 deg, pennation angle increased from 15.5 to 33.6 deg and fibre length decreased from 50.8 to 32.9 mm, with no significant change in the distance between the aponeuroses. As a result of these changes the PCSA increased by 34.8%. 4. Measurements of pennation angle, fibre length and distance between the aponeuroses of the gastrocnemius medialis were also performed by ultrasound on a cadaver leg and found to be in good agreement with direct anatomical measurements. 5. It is concluded that human gastrocnemius medialis architecture is significantly affected both by changes of joint angle at rest and by isometric contraction intensity. The remarkable shortening observed during isometric contraction suggests that, at rest, the gastrocnemius muscle and tendon are considerably slack. The extrapolation of muscle architectural data obtained from cadavers to in vivo conditions should be made only for matching muscle lengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- M V Narici
- Reparto di Fisiologia Istituto di Tecnologie Biomediche Avanzate, Consiglio Nazionale dell Ricerche, Milano, Italy.
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Abstract
Muscle imaging has been used largely as an adjunct in the assessment of patients with muscle disease and has been reported in descriptive terms only. Developments in computer-based image analysis techniques applied to muscle have enabled the quantification of muscle images using ultrasonography, computed tomography and magnetic resonance techniques. In conjunction with physiological measurements of muscle force, accurate determinations of muscle section area have allowed the determination of force per unit of cross-sectional area. This important measurement is essential if therapeutic approaches in muscle disease are to be adequately assessed. In this review the uses and merits of different imaging techniques are described with reference to new developments in quantitative analysis of muscle images and the possible utilisation of these techniques in neuromuscular disease is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Clague
- Department of Medicine, University of Liverpool, U.K
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43
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Herbert RD, Gandevia SC. Changes in pennation with joint angle and muscle torque: in vivo measurements in human brachialis muscle. J Physiol 1995; 484 ( Pt 2):523-32. [PMID: 7602542 PMCID: PMC1157912 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.1995.sp020683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
1. Estimates of pennation in human muscles are usually obtained from cadavers. In this study, pennation of human brachialis was measured in vivo using sonography. Effects of static and dynamic changes in elbow angle and torque were investigated. 2. Pennation was measured in eight subjects using an 80 mm, 5 MHz, linear-array ultrasound transducer to generate sagittal images of the brachialis during maximal and submaximal isometric contractions at various elbow angles. It was shown that estimates of pennation were reproducible, representative of measurements made throughout the belly of the muscle and not distorted by compression of the muscle with the transducer or rotation of the muscle out of the plane of the transducer. 3. Mean resting pennation was 9.0 +/- 2.0 deg (S.D., range 6.5-12.9 deg). When the muscle was relaxed there was no effect of elbow angle on pennation. However, during a maximal isometric contraction (MVC), with the elbow flexed to 90 deg, pennation increased non-linearly with elbow torque to between 22 and 30 deg (mean 24.7 +/- 2.4 deg). The effect of increasing torque was small when the elbow was fully extended. The relationship between elbow angle, elbow torque and brachialis pennation suggests that the relaxed brachialis muscle is slack over much of its physiological range of lengths. 4. There was no hysteresis in the relationship between torque and pennation during slow isometric contractions (0.2 MVC s-1), and the relationship between elbow angle and pennation was similar during slow shortening and lengthening contractions. 5. Two consequences follow from these findings. Firstly, intramuscular mechanics are complex and simple planar models of muscles underestimate the increases in pennation which occur during muscle contraction. Second, spindle afferents from relaxed muscles may not encode joint angle over the full range of movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Herbert
- Prince of Wales Medical Research Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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44
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Kawakami Y, Abe T, Kuno SY, Fukunaga T. Training-induced changes in muscle architecture and specific tension. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY 1995; 72:37-43. [PMID: 8789568 DOI: 10.1007/bf00964112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Five men underwent unilateral resistance training of elbow extensor (triceps brachii) muscles for 16 weeks. Before and after training, muscle layer thickness and fascicle angles of the long head of the triceps muscle were measured in vivo using B-mode ultrasound, and fascicle lengths were estimated. Series anatomical cross-sectional areas (ACSA) of the triceps brachii muscle were measured by magnetic resonance imaging, from which muscle volume (Vm) was determined and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) was calculated. Elbow extension strength (isometric; concentric and eccentric at 30, 90 and 180 degrees.s-1) was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer to determine specific tension. Muscle volumes, ACSA, PCSA, muscle layer thickness and fascicle angles increased after training and their relative changes were similar, while muscle and fascicle length did not change. Muscle strength increased at all velocities; however, specific tension decreased after training. Increase in fascicle angles, which would be the result of increased Vm and PCSA, would seem to imply the occurrence of changes in muscle architecture. This might have given a negative effect on the force-generating properties of the muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawakami
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Japan
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45
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Kuno S, Fukunaga T. Measurement of muscle fibre displacement during contraction by real-time ultrasonography in humans. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY 1995; 70:45-8. [PMID: 7729437 DOI: 10.1007/bf00601807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The contact point (P) made by both the echoes of the aponeurosis and from interspaces among fascicles of the tibialis anterior muscle was detected by real-time ultrasound scanning in 12 adults. Movement in the location of P was observed during muscle contraction and its displacement was related to changes in ankle joint angles (r = 0.81, P < 0.01), i.e., P shifted proximally when the ankle joint was dorsiflexed. There was also a significant positive correlation between the degree of dorsiflexion and the velocity related to the change in location of P (r = 0.84, P < 0.01). Ultrasound measurements of the displacement and the velocity of P were reproducible as there was no variation noticed among measurements on different days. It is suggested from these results that the displacement of P reflected changes in muscle length during contraction and that this amount of change corresponded to changes in joint angles.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kuno
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, Japan
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46
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Raadsheer MC, Van Eijden TM, Van Spronsen PH, Van Ginkel FC, Kiliaridis S, Prahl-Andersen B. A comparison of human masseter muscle thickness measured by ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Oral Biol 1994; 39:1079-84. [PMID: 7717890 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9969(94)90061-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Non-invasive imaging techniques such as computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasonography enable measurements of the cross-section and thickness of human jaw muscles in vivo, providing an indication of the maximal force a muscle can exert. In 15 adult Caucasian men the thickness of the masseter muscle was registered bilaterally on three different levels by ultrasonography. Scans were made on the contracted and relaxed muscle. A comparison was then made with measurements from serial MRI scans, using univariate analysis of variance for repeated measurements and Pearson's correlation coefficients. Variances of the repeated measurements were calculated for the different scanning levels and the different muscle conditions and tested for homogeneity. For both the ultrasound and MRI measurements there was no difference in thickness between the left and right muscle. The registration level with highest reproducibility was halfway between the origin and insertion. Measurements from the contracted muscle were more reproducible than those from the relaxed muscle. The relaxed muscle thickness measured by ultrasonography was smaller than that measured by MRI. The correlation between ultrasound and MRI was significant for the upper and middle level of scanning (p < 0.001). The highest correlation was found between MRI (relaxed) and ultrasound (contracted) at the middle level (R = 0.83, p < 10(-6)). The conclusion is that ultrasonography is an accurate and reproducible method for measuring the thickness of the masseter in vivo. It allows for large-scale longitudinal study of changes in jaw-muscle thickness during growth in relation to change in biomechanical properties of masticatory muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Raadsheer
- Department of Orthodontics, Academic Center for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), The Netherlands
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47
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Kawakami Y, Nakazawa K, Fujimoto T, Nozaki D, Miyashita M, Fukunaga T. Specific tension of elbow flexor and extensor muscles based on magnetic resonance imaging. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY 1994; 68:139-47. [PMID: 8194543 DOI: 10.1007/bf00244027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Series cross-section images of the upper extremity were obtained for four men by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and anatomical cross-sectional areas (ACSA) of elbow flexor muscles [biceps brachii (BIC), brachialis (BRA), brachioradialis (BRD)] and extensor muscles [triceps brachii (TRI)] were measured. Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) was calculated from the muscle volume and muscle fibre length, the former from the series ACSA and the latter from the muscle length multiplied by previously reported fibre/muscle length ratios. Elbow flexion/extension torque was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer and the force at the tendons was calculated from the torque and moment arms of muscles measured by MRI. Maximal ACSA of TRI was comparable to that of total flexors, while PCSA of TRI was greater by 1.9 times. Within flexors, BRA had the greatest contribution to torque (47%), followed by BIC (34%) and BRD (19%). Specific tension related to the estimated velocity of muscle fibres were similar for elbow flexors and extensors, suggesting that the capacity of tension development is analogous between two muscle groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawakami
- Department of Sports Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, Japan
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48
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Narici MV, Landoni L, Minetti AE. Assessment of human knee extensor muscles stress from in vivo physiological cross-sectional area and strength measurements. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY 1992; 65:438-44. [PMID: 1425650 DOI: 10.1007/bf00243511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The physiological cross-sectional areas (CSAp) of the vastus lateralis (VL), vastus intermedius (VI), vastus medialis (VM) and rectus femoris (RF) were obtained, in vivo, from the reconstructed muscle volumes, angles of pennation and distance between tendons of six healthy male volunteers by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In all subjects, the isometric maximum voluntary contraction strength (MVC) was measured at the optimum angle at which peak force occurred. The MVC developed at the ankle was 746.0 (SD 141.8) N and its tendon component (Ft), given by a mechanical advantage of 0.117 (SD 0.010), was 6.367 (SD 1.113) kN. To calculate the force acting along the fibres (Ff) of each muscle, Ft was divided by the cosine of the angle of pennation and multiplied for (CSAp.sigma CSAp-1), where sigma CSAp was the sum of CSAp of the four muscles. The resulting Ff values of VL, VI, VM and RF were: 1.452 (SD 0.531) kN, 1.997 (SD 0.187) kN, 1.914 (SD 0.827) kN, and 1.601 (SD 0.306) kN, respectively. The stress of each muscle was obtained by dividing these forces for the respective CSAp which was: 6.24 x 10(-3) (SD 2.54 x 10(-3)) m2 for VL, 8.35 x 10(-3) (SD 1.17 x 10(-3)) m2 for VI, 6.80 x 10(-3) (SD 2.66 x 10(-3)) m2 for VM and 6.62 x 10(-3) (SD 1.21 x 10(-3)) m2 for RF. The mean value of stress of VL, VI, VM and RF was 250 (SD 19) kN m-2; this value is in good agreement with data on animal muscle and those on human parallel-fibred muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- M V Narici
- Reparto Fisiologia Lavoro Muscolare, Istituto di Tecnologie Biomediche Avanzate, Milan, Italy
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49
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Rutherford OM, Jones DA. Measurement of fibre pennation using ultrasound in the human quadriceps in vivo. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY 1992; 65:433-7. [PMID: 1425649 DOI: 10.1007/bf00243510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Real-time ultrasound scanning was used to measure the angles of fibre pennation of vastus lateralis (VL) and vastus intermedius (VI) of the human quadriceps (n = 12) in vivo. The maximum isometric force and cross-sectional area of the quadriceps were also measured. With the knee at right-angles the mean fibre angles for VL and VI respectively were 0.133 (0.021) rad [7.6 degrees (1.2 degrees)] and 0.143 (0.028) rad [8.2 degrees (1.6 degrees)] [mean (SD)], which is within the range of angles measured on cadavers. The mean angle decreased in going from the contracted [VL, 0.244 rad (14 degrees); VI, 0.279 rad (16 degrees)] to the stretched [VL, 0.105 rad (6 degrees); VI, 0.122 rad (7 degrees)] position. There was a significant positive correlation between fibre angle and muscle cross-sectional area but no relationship between fibre angle and force per cross-sectional area. No increase in fibre angle was detected after 3 months strength training. We conclude that ultrasound can be used to measure pennation angles of superficial muscle groups but we could not demonstrate a relationship between pennation and force-generating capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- O M Rutherford
- Department of Medicine, Rayne Institute, University College and Middlesex School of Medicine, London, UK
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