1
|
Mhlanga-Mutangadura T, Bullock G, Cerda-Gonzalez S, Katz ML. Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis in a Mixed-Breed Dog with a Splice Site Variant in CLN6. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:661. [PMID: 38927597 PMCID: PMC11203140 DOI: 10.3390/genes15060661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
A 23-month-old neutered male dog of unknown ancestry presented with a history of progressive neurological signs that included anxiety, cognitive impairment, tremors, seizure activity, ataxia, and pronounced visual impairment. The clinical signs were accompanied by global brain atrophy. Due to progression in the severity of disease signs, the dog was euthanized at 26 months of age. An examination of the tissues collected at necropsy revealed dramatic intracellular accumulations of autofluorescent inclusions in the brain, retina, and cardiac muscle. The inclusions were immunopositive for subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase, and their ultrastructural appearances were similar to those of lysosomal storage bodies that accumulate in some neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) diseases. The dog also exhibited widespread neuroinflammation. Based on these findings, the dog was deemed likely to have suffered from a form of NCL. A whole genome sequence analysis of the proband's DNA revealed a homozygous C to T substitution that altered the intron 3-exon 4 splice site of CLN6. Other mutations in CLN6 cause NCL diseases in humans and animals, including dogs. The CLN6 protein was undetectable with immunolabeling in the tissues of the proband. Based on the clinical history, fluorescence and electron-microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and molecular genetic findings, the disorder in this dog was classified as an NCL resulting from the absence of the CLN6 protein. Screening the dog's genome for a panel of breed-specific polymorphisms indicated that its ancestry included numerous breeds, with no single breed predominating. This suggests that the CLN6 disease variant is likely to be present in other mixed-breed dogs and at least some ancestral breeds, although it is likely to be rare since other cases have not been reported to date.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tendai Mhlanga-Mutangadura
- Canine Genetics Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; (T.M.-M.); (G.B.)
| | - Garrett Bullock
- Canine Genetics Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; (T.M.-M.); (G.B.)
| | | | - Martin L. Katz
- Canine Genetics Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; (T.M.-M.); (G.B.)
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jolly RD, Dittmer KE, Jones BR, Worth AJ, Thompson KG, Johnstone AC, Palmer DN, Van de Water NS, Hemsley KM, Garrick DJ, Winchester BG, Walkley SU. Animal medical genetics: a historical perspective on more than 50 years of research into genetic disorders of animals at Massey University. N Z Vet J 2021; 69:255-266. [PMID: 33969809 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2021.1928564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Over the last 50 years, there have been major advances in knowledge and technology regarding genetic diseases, and the subsequent ability to control them in a cost-effective manner. This review traces these advances through research into genetic diseases of animals at Massey University (Palmerston North, NZ), and briefly discusses the disorders investigated during that time, with additional detail for disorders of major importance such as bovine α-mannosidosis, ovine ceroid-lipofuscinosis, canine mucopolysaccharidosis IIIA and feline hyperchylomicronaemia. The overall research has made a significant contribution to veterinary medicine, has provided new biological knowledge and advanced our understanding of similar disorders in human patients, including testing various specific therapies prior to human clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - K E Dittmer
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - B R Jones
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - A J Worth
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - K G Thompson
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - A C Johnstone
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - D N Palmer
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand
| | - N S Van de Water
- Department of Diagnostic Genetics, Auckland City Hospital, Auckland District Health Board, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - K M Hemsley
- Childhood Dementia Research Group, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, Australia
| | - D J Garrick
- School of Agriculture & Environment, Al Rae Centre for Genetics and Breeding, Massey University, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - B G Winchester
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - S U Walkley
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.,Rose F. Kennedy Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Palmer DN. The relevance of the storage of subunit c of ATP synthase in different forms and models of Batten disease (NCLs). Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1852:2287-91. [PMID: 26093153 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The discoveries of specific protein storage in the NCLs, particularly of subunit c of ATP synthase in most, and the sphingolipid activator proteins, SAPs or saposins A and D in CLN1, CLN10 and an unassigned form are reviewed. The subunit c stored in the relevant NCLs is the complete mature molecule including an unusual modification found only in animal species, trimethylation of its lysine-43. Because of its strongly hydrophobic and lipid-like properties subunit c is easily overlooked or incorrectly described. This is becoming more of a problem as subunit c is not detected in standard proteomic investigations. Methods are reviewed that allow its unequivocal characterisation. Subunit c storage and cellular storage body accumulation do not cause the neuropathology characteristic of these diseases. The function of the trimethyl group on lysine-43 of subunit c is considered, along with some indications of where its normal turnover may be disrupted in the NCLs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David N Palmer
- Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, PO Box 85084, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand; BARN (www.BARN.org.nz).
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Neverman NJ, Best HL, Hofmann SL, Hughes SM. Experimental therapies in the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1852:2292-300. [PMID: 25957554 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses represent a group of severe childhood lysosomal storage diseases. With at least 13 identified variants they are the most common cause of inherited neurodegeneration in children. These diseases share common pathological characteristics including motor problems, vision loss, seizures, and cognitive decline, culminating in premature death. Currently, no form of the disease can be treated or cured, with only palliative care to minimise discomfort. This review focuses on current and potentially ground-breaking clinical trials, including small molecule, enzyme replacement, stem cell, and gene therapies, in the development of effective treatments for the various disease subtypes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: "Current Research on the Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinoses (Batten Disease)".
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole J Neverman
- Department of Biochemistry, and Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Batten Animal Research Network (BARN), New Zealand
| | - Hannah L Best
- Department of Biochemistry, and Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Batten Animal Research Network (BARN), New Zealand
| | - Sandra L Hofmann
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Stephanie M Hughes
- Department of Biochemistry, and Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Batten Animal Research Network (BARN), New Zealand.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sulzer D, Mosharov E, Talloczy Z, Zucca FA, Simon JD, Zecca L. Neuronal pigmented autophagic vacuoles: lipofuscin, neuromelanin, and ceroid as macroautophagic responses during aging and disease. J Neurochem 2008; 106:24-36. [PMID: 18384642 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05385.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The most striking morphologic change in neurons during normal aging is the accumulation of autophagic vacuoles filled with lipofuscin or neuromelanin pigments. These organelles are similar to those containing the ceroid pigments associated with neurologic disorders, particularly in diseases caused by lysosomal dysfunction. The pigments arise from incompletely degraded proteins and lipids principally derived from the breakdown of mitochondria or products of oxidized catecholamines. Pigmented autophagic vacuoles may eventually occupy a major portion of the neuronal cell body volume because of resistance of the pigments to lysosomal degradation and/or inadequate fusion of the vacuoles with lysosomes. Although the formation of autophagic vacuoles via macroautophagy protects the neuron from cellular stress, accumulation of pigmented autophagic vacuoles may eventually interfere with normal degradative pathways and endocytic/secretory tasks such as appropriate response to growth factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Sulzer
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10036, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kay GW, Palmer DN, Rezaie P, Cooper JD. Activation of non-neuronal cells within the prenatal developing brain of sheep with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Brain Pathol 2006; 16:110-6. [PMID: 16768750 PMCID: PMC8096029 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2006.00002.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs, Batten disease) are fatal inherited lysosomal storage diseases of children characterized by increasing blindness, seizures and profound neurodegeneration but the mechanisms leading to these pathological changes remain unclear. Sheep with a CLN6 form that have a human-like brain and disease progression are invaluable for studying pathogenesis. A study of preclinical pathology in these sheep revealed localized glial activation at only 12 days of age, particularly in cortical regions that subsequently degenerate. This has been extended by examining fetal tissue from 60 days of gestation onwards. A striking feature was the presence of reactive astrocytes and the hypertrophy and proliferation of perivascular cells noted within the developing white matter of the cerebral cortex 40 days before birth. Astrocytic activation was evident within the cortical gray matter 20 days before birth, and was confined to the superficial laminae 12 days after birth. Clusters of activated microglia were detected in upper neocortical gray matter laminae shortly after birth. Neuronal development in affected sheep was undisturbed at these early ages. This prenatal activation of non-neuronal cells within the affected brain indicates the onset of pathogenesis during brain development and that an ordered sequence of glial activation precedes neurodegeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Graham W Kay
- Agriculture and Life Sciences Division, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tammen I, Houweling PJ, Frugier T, Mitchell NL, Kay GW, Cavanagh JAL, Cook RW, Raadsma HW, Palmer DN. A missense mutation (c.184C>T) in ovine CLN6 causes neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis in Merino sheep whereas affected South Hampshire sheep have reduced levels of CLN6 mRNA. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2006; 1762:898-905. [PMID: 17046213 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2006.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2006] [Revised: 08/27/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs, Batten disease) are a group of fatal recessively inherited neurodegenerative diseases of humans and animals characterised by common clinical signs and pathology. These include blindness, ataxia, dementia, behavioural changes, seizures, brain and retinal atrophy and accumulation of fluorescent lysosome derived organelles in most cells. A number of different variants have been suggested and seven different causative genes identified in humans (CLN1, CLN2, CLN3, CLN5, CLN6, CLN8 and CTSD). Animal models have played a central role in the investigation of this group of diseases and are extremely valuable for developing a better understanding of the disease mechanisms and possible therapeutic approaches. Ovine models include flocks of affected New Zealand South Hampshires and Borderdales and Australian Merinos. The ovine CLN6 gene has been sequenced in a representative selection of these sheep. These investigations unveiled the mutation responsible for the disease in Merino sheep (c.184C>T; p.Arg62Cys) and three common ovine allelic variants (c.56A>G, c.822G>A and c.933_934insCT). Linkage analysis established that CLN6 is the gene most likely to cause NCL in affected South Hampshire sheep, which do not have the c.184C>T mutation but show reduced expression of CLN6 mRNA in a range of tissues as determined by real-time PCR. Lack of linkage precludes CLN6 as a candidate for NCL in Borderdale sheep.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Imke Tammen
- Centre for Advanced Technologies in Animal Genetics and Reproduction (Reprogen), Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, PMB3, Camden, NSW, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Houweling PJ, Cavanagh JAL, Palmer DN, Frugier T, Mitchell NL, Windsor PA, Raadsma HW, Tammen I. Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis in Devon cattle is caused by a single base duplication (c.662dupG) in the bovine CLN5 gene. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2006; 1762:890-7. [PMID: 16935476 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2006.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2006] [Revised: 06/30/2006] [Accepted: 07/19/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs, Batten disease) are recessively inherited neurodegenerative disorders that affect humans and other animals, characterised by brain atrophy and the accumulation of lysosome derived fluorescent storage bodies in neurons and most other cells. Common clinical signs include blindness, ataxia, dementia, seizures and premature death. The associated genes for six different human forms have been identified (CLN1, CLN2, CLN3, CLN5, CLN6 and CLN8), and three other human forms suggested (CLNs 4, 7 and 9). A form of NCL in Australian Devon cattle is caused by a single base duplication (c.662dupG) in bovine CLN5. This mutation causes a frame-shift and premature termination (p.Arg221GlyfsX6) which is predicted to result in a severely truncated protein, analogous to disease causing mutations in human Finnish late infantile variant NCL (CLN5), and a simple genetic diagnostic test has been developed. The symptoms and disease course in cattle also matches CLN5. Only one initiation site was found in the bovine gene, equivalent to the third of four possible initiation sites in the human gene. As cattle are anatomically and physiologically similar to humans with a human-like central nervous system and easy to maintain and breed, they provide a valuable alternative model for CLN5 studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Houweling
- Centre for Advanced Technologies in Animal Genetics and Reproduction (Reprogen), Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, PMB3, Camden NSW, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Au DWT. The application of histo-cytopathological biomarkers in marine pollution monitoring: a review. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2004; 48:817-34. [PMID: 15111029 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
During the past two decades, a variety of histopathological alterations in fish and bivalves have been developed and used as biomarkers in pollution monitoring. Some of these have been successfully adopted in major national monitoring programmes, while others, although show promise, are still in the experimental stage. This paper critically reviews the scientific basis, cause and effect relationship, reliability, advantages and limitations of 14 histo-cytopathological biomarkers. The usefulness and practical application of each biomarker have been evaluated against a number of objective criteria including: ecological relevance, sensitivity, specificity, dose-response relationship, confounding factors, technical difficulties and cost-effectiveness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D W T Au
- Centre of Coastal Pollution and Conservation, Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Cloning of the individual genes that are mutated in the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs), or Batten disease, has opened up new avenues of research into the pathogenesis of these fatal autosomal recessive storage disorders. Genetically accurate mouse models have now been generated for each major form of the disorder, together with several variant forms. Ongoing analysis of these mice is revealing significant new data about the staging and progression of disease phenotypes. Combined with data from human autopsy tissues and large animal models, it is now clear that neurodegeneration is initially selective in the NCL CNS, targeting specific regions and particular cell populations. There is also evidence of selective glial activation that appears to precede obvious neurodegeneration, becoming more widespread with disease progression. Currently, there is debate over the mechanisms of cell death that operate in each form of NCL, with evidence of both apoptosis and autophagy. It is likely that these mechanisms may encompass a spectrum of cell death events, depending upon the specific context of each neuronal population. Taken together, these data have significant clinical implications for the development and targeting of appropriate therapeutic strategies, and for providing the landmarks to judge their efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M. Mitchison
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Royal Free and University College Medical School, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ming J. Lim
- Pediatric Storage Disorders Laboratory, and Institute of Psychiatry, King's college London, United Kingdom
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King's college London, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan D. Cooper
- Pediatric Storage Disorders Laboratory, and Institute of Psychiatry, King's college London, United Kingdom
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King's college London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Au DW, Wu RS. A field study on EROD activity and quantitative hepatocytological changes in an immature demersal fish. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2001; 115:23-32. [PMID: 11586770 DOI: 10.1016/s0269-7491(01)00095-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Demersal fish, Solea ovata, were sampled from a reference site and a site where highly contaminated sediment is dumped. Sexually immature fish from the contaminated site exhibited significantly higher EROD activity compared with counterparts sampled from the reference site. No significant difference in EROD activity could be found for sexually mature males and females between sites. The relationship between EROD activity and quantitative changes in hepatic lipofuscin/ceroid, as well as peroxisome, was investigated for immature S. ovata. A significant correlation was found between EROD activity and volume density of lipofuscin/ceroid in fish hepatocyte (r = 0.750; P < 0.05), but no significant correlation was discernible between EROD activity and peroxisomes. Results from this field study corroborate our earlier laboratory findings, in which induction of EROD activity by intraperitoneal injection of benzo[a]pyrene was associated with increase in absolute volume and absolute number of lipofuscin/ceroid in hepatocytes. The present study provides further evidence that induction of EROD activity is associated with an increase in hepatic lipofuscin/ceroid and possibly cytological damages in immature S. ovata. This cytological change may serve as a potential marker for exposure to PAHs and PCBs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D W Au
- Centre for Coastal Pollution and Conservation, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Oswald MJ, Palmer DN, Damak S. Splicing variants in sheep CLN3, the gene underlying juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Mol Genet Metab 1999; 67:169-75. [PMID: 10356317 DOI: 10.1006/mgme.1999.2848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in different genes underlie different forms of the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs, Batten disease). Subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase specifically accumulates in most of them, including the juvenile CLN3 form and a sheep form orthologous to CLN6. Products of these genes are likely to be components of a complex or pathway for subunit c turnover, and their expression may be cross-regulated. Different bands, some with different subcellular distributions, were detected by antisera against different regions of CLN3 on Western blots of sheep tissues. Affected liver blots were the same as controls but a specific 50-kDa band was at higher concentration in affected brain homogenates than in controls. Others have also reported bands reacting differently to different CLN3 antibodies. When the 3' end of sheep CLN3 cDNA was amplified by RT-PCR, four mRNA splicing variants were found. Different CLN3 splicing variants at the 5' end of the human cDNA have been reported. These mRNA splicing variants may account the variation of epitope distribution and the different subcellular locations of the CLN3 gene product(s). The predicted size of the unmodified CLN3 protein is 48 kDa. Significantly higher molecular weight bands may correspond to oligomers of a CLN3 isoform or to a CLN3 isoform tightly bound to another protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M J Oswald
- Animal and Food Sciences Division, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
McGeoch JE, Palmer DN. Ion pores made of mitochondrial ATP synthase subunit c in the neuronal plasma membrane and Batten disease. Mol Genet Metab 1999; 66:387-92. [PMID: 10191134 DOI: 10.1006/mgme.1999.2822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A hypothesis is outlined that the neurodegeneration of the Batten disease syndromes that involve an overaccumulation of subunit c is caused by a newly characterized function of the protein, its ability to assemble in the plasma membrane into ion pores (J. E. M. McGeoch and G. Guidotti, Brain Res 766: 188-194, 1997), rendering the cell liable to constant electrical excitability to a degree that causes cell death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E McGeoch
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 7 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Chapter 11 The Neuronal Ceroid-lipofuscinoses (Batten Disease). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s1566-3124(08)60031-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
|
15
|
Croopnick JB, Choi HC, Mueller DM. The subcellular location of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae homologue of the protein defective in the juvenile form of Batten disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998; 250:335-41. [PMID: 9753630 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1998.9272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The mutation responsible for the juvenile form of Batten disease was mapped to a single gene, Cln3 (T. J. Lerner et al. (1995) Cell 82:949-957). Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has an open reading frame, BTN1 (YHC3), that encodes the putative homologue of Cln3p. Primary structure comparison indicates that the human Cln3p and yeast Btn1p are 59% similar and 39% identical and they have similar hydropathy profiles. Gene disruption of BTN1 in yeast has no apparent effect on growth or viability of the cells under a variety of conditions. Gene fusion protein constructs of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and Btn1p, with GFP at the amino and carboxyl ends of Btn1p, localize to the vacuole in yeast. These data indicate that BTN1 is a nonessential gene under most growth conditions which functions in the vacuole in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J B Croopnick
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Chicago Medical School, Illinois 60064, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
A wide variety of inherited lysosomal hydrolase deficiencies have been reported in animals and are characterized by accumulation of sphingolipids, glycolipids, oligosaccharides, or mucopolysaccharides within lysosomes. Inhibitors of a lysosomal hydrolase, e.g., swainsonine, may also induce storage disease. Another group of lysosomal storage diseases, the ceroid-lipofuscinoses, involve the accumulation of hydrophobic proteins, but their pathogenesis is unclear. Some of these diseases are of veterinary importance, and those caused by a hydrolase deficiency can be controlled by detection of heterozygotes through the gene dosage phenomenon or by molecular genetic techniques. Other of these diseases are important to biomedical research either as models of the analogous human disease and/or through their ability to help elucidate specific aspects of cell biology. Some of these models have been used to explore possible therapeutic strategies and to define their limitations and expectations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Weissenböck H, Rössel C. Neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis in a domestic cat: clinical, morphological and immunohistochemical findings. J Comp Pathol 1997; 117:17-24. [PMID: 9263841 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9975(97)80063-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A 9-month-old domestic shorthair cat was humanely killed because of uncoordinated gait, myoclonus, seizures and reduced vision. Histological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural examination revealed a neuronal storage disease consistent with neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis (NCL). Neurons contained Sudan black- and luxol fast blue-positive material which was autofluorescent. Immunohistochemically, the storage material was found to contain subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase, a protein recently recognized as the main component of the storage material in NCL. Ultrastructurally, the material consisted of curvilinear and fingerprint bodies, which are indicative of NCL.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Weissenböck
- Institute of Pathology and Forensic Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Palmer DN, Tyynelä J, van Mil HC, Westlake VJ, Jolly RD. Accumulation of sphingolipid activator proteins (SAPs) A and D in granular osmiophilic deposits in miniature Schnauzer dogs with ceroid-lipofuscinosis. J Inherit Metab Dis 1997; 20:74-84. [PMID: 9061571 DOI: 10.1023/a:1005365709340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinoses (NCL, Batten disease) are fatal inherited neurodegenerative diseases of children characterized by retinal and brain atrophy and the accumulation of electron-dense storage bodies in cells. Mutations in different genes underlie different major forms. The infantile disease (CLN-1, McKusick 256730) is distinguished by the storage of the sphingolipid activator proteins (SAPs) A and D in distinctive granular osmiophilic deposits (GRODs). This contrasts with the other major forms, where subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase is stored in various multilamellar profiles. Ceroid-lipofuscinoses also occur in dogs, including a form in miniature Schnauzers with distinctive granular osmiophilic deposit-like storage bodies. Antisera to SAPs A and D reacted to these storage bodies in situ. The presence of SAP D was confirmed by Western blotting and of SAP A by protein sequencing. Neither subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase nor of vacuolar ATPase is stored. This suggests that there are two families of ceroid-lipofuscinoses, the subunit c-storing forms, and those in which SAPs A and D, and perhaps other proteins, accumulate. Further work is required to determine whether other forms with granular osmiophilic deposits belong to the latter class and the genetic relationships between them and the human infantile disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D N Palmer
- Centre for Molecular Biology, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Lipman RD, Donohue LR, Hoppe P, Bronson RT. Evidence that lysosomal storage of proteolipids is a cell autonomous process in the motor neuron degeneration (mnd) mouse, a model of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Neurosci Lett 1996; 219:111-4. [PMID: 8971792 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(96)13185-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The motor neuron degeneration (mnd) mouse has been documented to accumulate proteolipid and thus is a model of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis [Dunn, W.A., Raizada, M.K., Vogt, E.S. and Brown, E.A., Int. J. Dev. Neurosci., 12 (1994) 185-196; Faust, J.R., Rodman, J.S., Daniel, P.F., Dice, J.F. and Bronson, R.T., J. Biol. Chem., 269 (1994) 10150-10155]. While accumulation of proteolipid in the hippocampus of chimeric mice composed of mnd and +/+ cells was found to be proportional to the contribution of mnd in the brain, accumulation within individual cells was the same for cells from chimeric and age-matched mnd mice. Bone marrow transplantation was used to altering the milieu of circulating factors to determine whether this might modify the disease phenotype in mnd mice. Transplantation of bone marrow in neonatal or young mice did not reduce the age-associated accumulation of proteolipid within hippocampal neurons. The results of these experiments indicate that mnd results in a cell autonomous defect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Lipman
- Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Palmer DN, Hay JM. The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (Batten disease): a group of lysosomal proteinoses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1996; 389:129-36. [PMID: 8861002 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0335-0_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D N Palmer
- Centre for Molecular Biology, AVSG, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Jolly RD. Batten disease (ceroid-lipofuscinosis): the enigma of subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase accumulation. Neurochem Res 1995; 20:1301-4. [PMID: 8786815 DOI: 10.1007/bf00992504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Ceroid-lipofuscinosis is an inherited neurodegenerative disease of human beings and domestic animals characterized by the accumulation in neurons and other cells of a fluorescent lipopigment. In the ovine form of disease, subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase is the dominant accumulated metabolite ( > 50%). It also accumulates significantly in the late infantile and juvenile forms of the human disease and several other animal forms. Evidence is accumulating that the underlying biochemical defect may be associated with mitochondria. The extreme hydrophobicity of subunit c and its propensity to aggregate with lipids into regular multilamellar arrays that cannot be catabolised may reflect an initial defect not necessarily associated with faulty proteolysis. This hypothesis extends an earlier one that subunit c accumulated due to a defect in its catabolic pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Jolly RD. Comparative biology of the neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinoses (NCL): an overview. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 1995; 57:307-11. [PMID: 7668352 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320570240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Multiple forms of ceroid-lipofuscinosis occur in human beings and animals. They are characterized by brain and retinal atrophy associated with selective necrosis of neurons. This neurodegenerative disease appears associated with the disease process rather than storage of fluorescent lipopigment per se, and there is now growing evidence that pathogenesis may involve mitochondria rather than a primary defect of lysosomal catabolism. Of the forms of ceroid-lipofuscinosis studied, most but not all reflect accumulation of subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase. If there is a common denominator between all forms other than the presence of fluorescent lipopigment, then it may be the accumulation of hydrophobic protein. Analogous diseases in animals can be expected to reflect the same spectrum of biochemical changes, and they warrant in-depth study to help understand the pathogenesis and heterogeneity of the group.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Moroni-Rawson P, Palmer DN, Jolly RD, Jordan TW. Variant proteins in ovine ceroid-lipofuscinosis. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 1995; 57:279-84. [PMID: 7668345 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320570233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis has been used to search for disease-related protein variation in South Hampshire sheep with ovine ceroid-lipofuscinosis. Several hundred proteins in homogenates and subcellular fractions from livers have been examined, using isoelectric focusing as the first dimension separation, and SDS PAGE in the second dimension. Under these circumstances it was not possible to detect subunit c of the Fo region of ATP synthase, as this protein did not enter the isoelectric focusing gels. However, our studies emphasize the selective nature of misprocessing of subunit c, as we have not been able to detect any other consistent variation between affected and control animals for over 200 mitochondrial fraction proteins. Comparison of the presence or absence, and abundance, of proteins from isolated storage bodies with their counterparts in subcellular fractions from normal liver indicated that storage bodies contained a small subset of mitochondrial proteins, in addition to subunit c, with possible minor contributions from lysosomal, microsomal, and soluble proteins. Analysis of extramitochondrial proteins showed greater than 10-20-fold accumulation of ferritin light chains in microsomes, and partial loss of a putatively lysosomal protein, in ovine ceroid-lipofuscinosis. In addition, senescence marker protein was more abundant in the cytosolic fraction of controls, compared with affected individuals. We are currently investigating the basis and significance of these differences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Moroni-Rawson
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Palmer DN, Bayliss SL, Westlake VJ. Batten disease and the ATP synthase subunit c turnover pathway: raising antibodies to subunit c. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 1995; 57:260-5. [PMID: 7668342 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320570230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of storage bodies in the ceroid-lipofuscinoses (Batten disease) has demonstrated a high protein content suggestive of a proteinosis. Direct N-terminal sequencing has shown that subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase is specifically stored in the disease in sheep and cattle, and in the human late infantile and juvenile diseases, as well as in 3 breeds of dogs. No differences have been found between the stored subunit c and that in normal mitochondria. No other mitochondrial components are stored. Different proteins, sphingolipid activator proteins (SAPs or saposins) A and D, are stored in the infantile disease. Linkage studies have shown that different forms of ceroid-lipofuscinosis are coded for on different genes on different chromosomes. The genes for subunit c, its production, its insertion into mitochondria, and mitochondrial function are normal. This suggests that underlying the various forms of the disease is a family of lesions in the normal pathway of subunit c turnover, after its normal insertion into the ATP synthase complex. Antibodies to subunit c offer one way of mapping that pathway and detecting the sites of lesions. Specific antibodies have been raised against stored subunit c, using a liposomal adjuvant system which proved superior to classical adjuvants. These antibodies are also useful diagnostically, both in Western blotting and in immunocytochemistry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D N Palmer
- Centre for Molecular Biology, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Black L, Pullarkat RK. Bibliography on ceroid-lipofuscinoses, II. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 1995; 57:130-6. [PMID: 7668316 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320570204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- L Black
- New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island 10314, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
The ceroid-lipofuscinoses are a group of inherited neurodegenerative diseases of human beings characterized by the accumulation of a fluorescent lipopigment in neurons and other cells within the body. There is usually atrophy of both brain and retina with preferential loss of particular neurons. Biochemically, the diseases divide into at least two groups, i.e. those that accumulate subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase and those that do not. Dolichol pyrophosphate linked oligosaccharides are also present in storage material. As the underlying biochemical anomalies are not known, the various clinicopathological entities are classified on clinical grounds, by age of onset and, to a lesser extent, by the course of the disease. The best recognized diseases are infantile, late infantile, early juvenile, juvenile and adult onset forms but other variants occur indicating considerable heterogeneity within the group. The infantile, late infantile and juvenile diseases are not allelic. Analogous diseases occur in a variety of animal species. That in the sheep has been extensively studied as a model of the human disease and is the prototype subunit c storage disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Jolly RD, Palmer DN, Studdert VP, Sutton RH, Kelly WR, Koppang N, Dahme G, Hartley WJ, Patterson JS, Riis RC. Canine ceroid-lipofuscinoses: A review and classification. J Small Anim Pract 1994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.1994.tb03290.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
28
|
Faust J, Rodman J, Daniel P, Dice J, Bronson R. Two related proteolipids and dolichol-linked oligosaccharides accumulate in motor neuron degeneration mice (mnd/mnd), a model for neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)37002-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
|
29
|
Abstract
Lysosomal storage diseases may be inherited or acquired. The former are usually inherited as autosomal traits, and heterozygotes may be identified by having enzyme activity levels approximately midway between normal and diseased values. Founder effect, enhanced by widespread acceptance of artificial breeding technologies, has been important in the spread of these genetic diseases in cattle. Acquired storage diseases of importance to livestock most frequently are plant intoxications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University Faculty of Veterinary Science, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Jolly RD, Dalefield RR, Palmer DN. Ceroid, lipofuscin and the ceroid-lipofuscinoses (Batten disease). J Inherit Metab Dis 1993; 16:280-3. [PMID: 8411981 DOI: 10.1007/bf00710265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Jolly RD, Gibson AJ, Healy PJ, Slack PM, Birtles MJ. Bovine ceroid-lipofuscinosis: Pathology of blindness. N Z Vet J 1992; 40:107-11. [PMID: 16031671 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.1992.35711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Five Devon cattle with suspected ceroid-lipofuscinosis and aged between 19 and 39 months of age were humanely slaughtered and subjected to post-mortem examination. There was severe atrophy of the cerebrum, particularly of the occipital cortex. Microscopy also showed severe atrophy of the retina with complete loss of photoreceptor cells, even in the youngest animal examined. Histopathologically the disease was characterised by accumulation of a fluorescent lipopigment in neurones, including those of the retina and a severe astrocytosis. The disease, which is characterised by the accumulation of subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase, is similar to that extensively described in South Hampshire sheep except that the retinal lesions were more severe. In contrast, tremors were not noted in the cattle. The clinical history and similarity to the disease in sheep and other species indicated inheritance was as an autosomal recessive trait.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Jolly RD, Martinus RD, Palmer DN. Sheep and other animals with ceroid-lipofuscinoses: their relevance to Batten disease. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 1992; 42:609-14. [PMID: 1535180 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320420436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Distinct pathological and histopathological changes distinguish the ceroid-lipofuscinoses from other storage diseases of humans and animals. These various disease entities likely reflect a variety of mutations of the same gene, or mutations of different genes associated with metabolism of the same or similar substrates. The disease in sheep most closely resembles the juvenile human disease. In it 50% of the lipopigment consists of subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase while the remaining constituents are considered normal for a lysosomal derived cytosome. The same subunit c has been shown to be also stored in affected English Setter, Border Collie, and Tibetan Terrier dogs, the Devon cow, and in the late infantile and juvenile human forms of disease but not in the infantile form. Thus it gives a chemical unity to at least some members of the group and allows a major conceptual change in regard to further directions of research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R D Jolly
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Palmer DN, Fearnley IM, Walker JE, Hall NA, Lake BD, Wolfe LS, Haltia M, Martinus RD, Jolly RD. Mitochondrial ATP synthase subunit c storage in the ceroid-lipofuscinoses (Batten disease). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 1992; 42:561-7. [PMID: 1535179 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320420428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The ceroid-lipofuscinoses (Batten disease) are neurodegenerative inherited lysosomal storage diseases of children and animals. A common finding is the occurrence of fluorescent storage bodies (lipopigment) in cells. These have been isolated from tissues of affected sheep. Direct protein sequencing established that the major component is identical to the dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD) reactive proteolipid, subunit c, of mitochondrial ATP synthase and that this protein accounts for at least 50% of the storage body mass. No other mitochondrial components are stored. Direct sequencing of storage bodies isolated from tissues of children with juvenile and late infantile ceroid-lipofuscinosis established that they also contain large amounts of complete and normal subunit c. It is also stored in the disease in cattle and dogs but is not present in storage bodies from the human infantile form. Subunit c is normally found as part of the mitochondrial ATP synthase complex and accounts for 2-4% of the inner mitochondrial membrane protein. Mitochondria from affected sheep contain normal amounts of this protein. The P1 and P2 genes that code for it are normal as are mRNA levels. Oxidative phosphorylation is also normal. These findings suggest that ovine ceroid-lipofuscinosis is caused by a specific failure in the degradation of subunit c after its normal inclusion into mitochondria, and its consequent abnormal accumulation in lysosomes. This implies a unique pathway for subunit c degradation. It is probable that the human late infantile and juvenile diseases and the disease in cattle and dogs involve lesions in the same pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D N Palmer
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|