Effect of chlorpromazine on the interaction between phasic and tonic electrocortical arousal mechanisms

Tonic desynchronisation of cortical electroencephalogram by electrical and chemical stimulation of superior colliculus and surrounding structures in urethane-anaesthetised rats

Damage to the superior colliculus in rats impairs desynchronisation of the cortical electroencephalogram in response to light flashes. However, it is unclear which elements within the superior colliculus, and which efferent collicular pathways, might be involved in alerting cerebral cortex to visual stimuli. To investigate this problem, the superior colliculus and surrounding structures were stimulated either electrically (3 s trains of 0.2 ms 100 Hz cathodal pulses), or chemically (200 nl of 5 mM sodium L-glutamate), in rats anaesthetised with urethane. The cortical electroencephalogram was recorded bilaterally from frontal cortex. At each site tested with electrical stimulation the threshold current (up to 60 microA) required to produce tonic desynchronisation (outlasting stimulation-offset by at least 10 s) was determined. Comparison of the effects of electrical and chemical stimulation suggested the following: (1) stimulation of cells in the deep layers of the superior colliculus can desynchronise the cortical electroencephalogram. There may also be an additional effective area in the rostral part of the superficial layers, but this needs to be confirmed in unanaesthetised animals. (2) Stimulation of fibres in the deep white layers of caudal superior colliculus, and of cells in a wide area of caudal midbrain reticular formation, are also effective at desynchronising the cortical electroencephalogram. It is therefore possible that the ipsilateral descending pathway, that runs from the superior colliculus to terminate in the parabigeminal and cuneiform nuclei and surrounding reticular formation, is involved in mediating cortical desynchronisation initiated by the superior colliculus. Evidence from other studies indicates that some sites in this pathway may be part of a "defence arousal system". (3) Sites on the ascending pathways from the superior colliculus, to structures including dorsal thalamus, pretectum, zona incerta and rostral midbrain reticular formation, were relatively ineffective at tonically desynchronising the cortex. However, some of these pathways might mediate phasic, movement-related arousal of collicular origin.

Neurochemical modulation of sensory-motor reactivity: acoustic and tactile startle reflexes

The present review argues that the startle reflex is particularly well suited as a model system to analyze how drugs alter stimulus reactivity and reflex excitability. It then reviews all the literature to date on how drugs or lesions that are thought to alter neurochemical transmitter systems affect acoustic and/or tactile startle. Hypotheses are presented to account for how serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, and opiates modulate startle. Effects on startle plasticity such as habituation, sensitization, and potentiation resulting from prior associative learning are also included.