Replacement of potassium ions by ammonium ions in different micro-organisms grown in potassium-limited chemostat culture

DarA-the central processing unit for the integration of osmotic with potassium and amino acid homeostasis in Bacillus subtilis

Cyclic di-adenosine monophosphate (c-di-AMP) is a second messenger involved in diverse metabolic processes including osmolyte uptake, cell wall homeostasis, as well as antibiotic and heat resistance. This study investigates the role of the c-di-AMP receptor protein DarA in the osmotic stress response in Bacillus subtilis. Through a series of experiments, we demonstrate that DarA plays a central role in the cellular response to osmotic fluctuations. Our findings show that DarA becomes essential under extreme potassium limitation as well as upon salt stress, highlighting its significance in mediating osmotic stress adaptation. Suppressor screens with darA mutants reveal compensatory mechanisms involving the accumulation of osmoprotectants, particularly potassium and citrulline. Mutations affecting various metabolic pathways, including the citric acid cycle as well as glutamate and arginine biosynthesis, indicate a complex interplay between the osmotic stress response and metabolic regulation. In addition, the growth defects of the darA mutant during potassium starvation and salt stress in a strain lacking the high-affinity potassium uptake systems KimA and KtrAB can be rescued by increased affinity of the remaining potassium channel KtrCD or by increased expression of ktrD, thus resulting in increased potassium uptake. Finally, the darA mutant can respond to salt stress by the increased expression of MleN , which can export sodium ions.IMPORTANCEEnvironmental bacteria are exposed to rapidly changing osmotic conditions making an effective adaptation to these changes crucial for the survival of the cells. In Gram-positive bacteria, the second messenger cyclic di-AMP plays a key role in this adaptation by controlling (i) the influx of physiologically compatible organic osmolytes and (ii) the biosynthesis of such osmolytes. In several bacteria, cyclic di-adenosine monophosphate (c-di-AMP) can bind to a signal transduction protein, called DarA, in Bacillus subtilis. So far, no function for DarA has been discovered in any organism. We have identified osmotically challenging conditions that make DarA essential and have identified suppressor mutations that help the bacteria to adapt to those conditions. Our results indicate that DarA is a central component in the integration of osmotic stress with the synthesis of compatible amino acid osmolytes and with the homeostasis of potassium, the first response to osmotic stress.

Comparison of struvite and K-struvite for Pb and Cr immobilisation in contaminated soil

Struvite is a value-added by-product recovered from phosphorus-rich wastewater treatment by adding magnesium. Struvite is mainly used as slow-release fertilisers containing phosphate that can form insoluble salts with certain heavy metals. Hence, struvite may have potential application as a phosphate remediation agent for the immobilisation of heavy metals in contaminated soil, while the related study is limited. Similarly, an analogue compound of struvite, K-struvite, may also have this value but has not been reported elsewhere. This study investigated the effect of struvite and K-struvite on the remediation of Cr-spiked and Pb-spiked soil. To evaluate the feasibility, the agent dosage and two quality parameters (particle size and purity) of struvite and K-struvite were considered for the experimental design and statically analysed by principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS). The results show that the dosage significantly impacts the immobilisation process, while the effect of particle size and purity are negligible. Struvite and K-struvite have similar performance on heavy metals immobilisation, and both are significant in Pb immobilisation (up to 96% of F5, stable fraction) and are beneficial for reducing the most mobilised fractions (F1 and F2) of Cr to lesser than 3%. Struvite and K-struvite share similar performance due to their similar atomic radius, and the different performance between Cr and Pb immobilisation can be explained by the strong hydrolysis trend of chromium ion, which may inhibit the binding of the phosphate and chromium. The kinetic study finds that all three variables positively impact the free chromium ion, and the immobilisation process is fast so unlikely to be kinetically limited. These findings of this project will provide insight into how the immobilisation process changes in response to the dosage and quality of struvite compounds.

Leptothrix cholodnii Response to Nutrient Limitation

Microorganisms are widely utilized for the treatment of wastewater in activated sludge systems. However, the uncontrolled growth of filamentous bacteria leads to bulking and adversely affects wastewater treatment efficiency. To clarify the nutrient requirements for filament formation, we track the growth of a filamentous bacterium, Leptothrix cholodnii SP-6 in different nutrient-limited conditions using a high aspect-ratio microfluidic chamber to follow cell-chain elongation and sheath formation. We find that limitations in Na⁺, K⁺, and Fe²⁺ yield no observable changes in the elongation of cell chains and sheath formation, whereas limitations of C, N, P, or vitamins lead to more pronounced changes in filament morphology; here we observe the appearance of partially empty filaments with wide intercellular gaps. We observe more dramatic differences when SP-6 cells are transferred to media lacking Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺. Loss of Mg²⁺ results in cell autolysis, while removal of Ca²⁺ results in the catastrophic disintegration of the filaments. By simultaneously limiting both carbon and Ca²⁺ sources, we are able to stimulate planktonic cell generation. These findings paint a detailed picture of the ecophysiology of Leptothrix, which may lead to improved control over the unchecked growth of deleterious filamentous bacteria in water purification systems.

Transcriptome analyses reveal the utilization of nitrogen sources and related metabolic mechanisms of Sporosarcina pasteurii

In recent years, Sporosarcina pasteurii (S. pasteurii) has become one of the most popular bacteria in microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP). Various applications have been developed based on the efficient urease that can induce the precipitation of calcium carbonate. However, the metabolic mechanism related to biomineralization of S. pasteurii has not been clearly elucidated. The process of bacterial culture and biomineralization consumes a large amount of urea or ammonium salts, which are usually used as agricultural fertilizers, not to mention probable environmental pollutions caused by the excessive use of these raw materials. Therefore, it is urgent to reveal the mechanism of nitrogen utilization and metabolism of S. pasteurii. In this paper, we compared the growth and gene expression of S. pasteurii under three different culture conditions through transcriptome analyses. GO and KEGG analyses revealed that both ammonium and urea were direct nitrogen sources of S. pasteurii, and the bacteria could not grow normally in the absence of ammonium or urea. To the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first one to reveal the nitrogen utilization mechanism of S. pasteurii through transcriptome methods. Furthermore, the presence of ammonium might promote the synthesis of intracellular ATP and enhance the motility of the bacteria. There should be an ATP synthesis mechanism associated with urea hydrolysis catalyzed by urease in S. pasteurii.

Toward Efficient Synthesis of Chiral Zeolites: A Rational Strategy for Fluoride-Free Synthesis of STW-Type Zeolite

The STW-type zeolite is attractive for developing novel enantioselective syntheses/separation of chiral compounds because it is the only chiral zeolitic microporous material whose enantioenriched synthesis has been achieved. In addition to the conventional industries in which zeolites are used, STW should have diverse industrial applications in the pharmaceutical and food industries. However, the toxic and caustic fluoride required for synthesizing STW severely hinders its commercialization by mass production. Herein, we report the first example of fluoride-free STW synthesis, in which the two roles of fluoride-formation of a zeolitic framework rich in tetravalent T-atoms and promotion of double 4-membered ring unit formation-were substituted by dry gel conversion and Ge addition, respectively. The STW obtained was highly crystalline, with a similar micropore volume and thermal stability as those of original fluoride-based STW. Our approach is promising not only for the fluoride-free synthesis of enantiomeric STW but also for general fluoride-free syntheses.

Nitrogen Assimilation and Transport by Ex Planta Nitrogen-Fixing Bradyrhizobium diazoefficiens Bacteroids Is Modulated by Oxygen, Bacteroid Density and l-Malate

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation requires the transfer of fixed organic nitrogen compounds from the symbiotic bacteria to a host plant, yet the chemical nature of the compounds is in question. Bradyrhizobium diazoefficiens bacteroids were isolated anaerobically from soybean nodules and assayed at varying densities, varying partial pressures of oxygen, and varying levels of l-malate. Ammonium was released at low bacteroid densities and high partial pressures of oxygen, but was apparently taken up at high bacteroid densities and low partial pressures of oxygen in the presence of l-malate; these later conditions were optimal for amino acid excretion. The ratio of partial pressure of oxygen/bacteroid density of apparent ammonium uptake and of alanine excretion displayed an inverse relationship. Ammonium uptake, alanine and branch chain amino acid release were all dependent on the concentration of l-malate displaying similar K0.5 values of 0.5 mM demonstrating concerted regulation. The hyperbolic kinetics of ammonium uptake and amino acid excretion suggests transport via a membrane carrier and also suggested that transport was rate limiting. Glutamate uptake displayed exponential kinetics implying transport via a channel. The chemical nature of the compounds released were dependent upon bacteroid density, partial pressure of oxygen and concentration of l-malate demonstrating an integrated metabolism.

Nutritional preferences of human gut bacteria reveal their metabolic idiosyncrasies

Bacterial metabolism plays a fundamental role in gut microbiota ecology and host-microbiome interactions. Yet the metabolic capabilities of most gut bacteria have remained unknown. Here we report growth characteristics of 96 phylogenetically diverse gut bacterial strains across 4 rich and 15 defined media. The vast majority of strains (76) grow in at least one defined medium, enabling accurate assessment of their biosynthetic capabilities. These do not necessarily match phylogenetic similarity, thus indicating a complex evolution of nutritional preferences. We identify mucin utilizers and species inhibited by amino acids and short-chain fatty acids. Our analysis also uncovers media for in vitro studies wherein growth capacity correlates well with in vivo abundance. Further value of the underlying resource is demonstrated by correcting pathway gaps in available genome-scale metabolic models of gut microorganisms. Together, the media resource and the extracted knowledge on growth abilities widen experimental and computational access to the gut microbiota.

Adaptation of Bacillus subtilis to Life at Extreme Potassium Limitation

Potassium is the most abundant metal ion in every living cell. This ion is essential due to its requirement for the activity of the ribosome and many enzymes but also because of its role in buffering the negative charge of nucleic acids. As the external concentrations of potassium are usually low, efficient uptake and intracellular enrichment of the ion is necessary. The Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis possesses three transporters for potassium, KtrAB, KtrCD, and the recently discovered KimA. In the absence of the high-affinity transporters KtrAB and KimA, the bacteria were unable to grow at low potassium concentrations. However, we observed the appearance of suppressor mutants that were able to overcome the potassium limitation. All these suppressor mutations affected amino acid metabolism, particularly arginine biosynthesis. In the mutants, the intracellular levels of ornithine, citrulline, and arginine were strongly increased, suggesting that these amino acids can partially substitute for potassium. This was confirmed by the observation that the supplementation with positively charged amino acids allows growth of B. subtilis even at the extreme potassium limitation that the bacteria experience if no potassium is added to the medium. In addition, a second class of suppressor mutations allowed growth at extreme potassium limitation. These mutations result in increased expression of KtrAB, the potassium transporter with the highest affinity and therefore allow the acquisition and accumulation of the smallest amounts of potassium ions from the environment.

Potassium is essential for every living cell as it is required for the activity for many enzymes and for maintaining the intracellular pH by buffering the negative charge of the nucleic acids. We have studied the adaptation of the soil bacterium Bacillus subtilis to life at low potassium concentrations. If the major high-affinity transporters are missing, the bacteria are unable to grow unless they acquire mutations that result in the accumulation of positively charged amino acids such as ornithine, citrulline, and arginine. Supplementation of the medium with these amino acids rescued growth even in the absence of externally added potassium. Moreover, these growth conditions, which the bacteria experience as an extreme potassium limitation, can be overcome by the acquisition of mutations that result in increased expression of the high-affinity potassium transporter KtrAB. Our results indicate that positively charged amino acids can partially take over the function of potassium.

Biomimetic supercontainers for size-selective electrochemical sensing of molecular ions

New ionophores are essential for advancing the art of selective ion sensing. Metal-organic supercontainers (MOSCs), a new family of biomimetic coordination capsules designed using sulfonylcalix[4]arenes as container precursors, are known for their tunable molecular recognition capabilities towards an array of guests. Herein, we demonstrate the use of MOSCs as a new class of size-selective ionophores dedicated to electrochemical sensing of molecular ions. Specifically, a MOSC molecule with its cavities matching the size of methylene blue (MB⁺), a versatile organic molecule used for bio-recognition, was incorporated into a polymeric mixed-matrix membrane and used as an ion-selective electrode. This MOSC-incorporated electrode showed a near-Nernstian potentiometric response to MB⁺ in the nano- to micro-molar range. The exceptional size-selectivity was also evident through contrast studies. To demonstrate the practical utility of our approach, a simulated wastewater experiment was conducted using water from the Fyris River (Sweden). It not only showed a near-Nernstian response to MB⁺ but also revealed a possible method for potentiometric titration of the redox indicator. Our study thus represents a new paradigm for the rational design of ionophores that can rapidly and precisely monitor molecular ions relevant to environmental, biomedical, and other related areas.

Interactions Between Monovalent Cations and Nutrient Homeostasis

Maintenance of appropriate fluxes of monovalent cation is a requirement for growth and survival. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae an electrochemical gradient of H(+) is fundamental for the uptake of diverse cations, such as K(+), and of many other nutrients. In spite of early work suggesting that alterations in monovalent cation fluxes impact on the uptake and utilization of nutrients, such as phosphate anions, only recently this important aspect of the yeast physiology has been addressed and characterized in some detail. This chapter provides a historical background and summarizes the latest findings.

The KdpD Sensor Kinase of Escherichia coli Responds to Several Distinct Signals To Turn on Expression of the Kdp Transport System

Kdp, one of three saturable K(+) uptake systems in Escherichia coli, is the system with the highest affinity for K(+) and the only one whose expression is strongly controlled by medium K(+) concentration. Expression is controlled by a two-component system of KdpD, the sensor kinase, and KdpE, the response regulator. There is general agreement that expression occurs when the growth rate of cells begins to become limited by K(+) availability. How K(+) limitation results in expression has been controversial. Studying the roles of the major components of the growth medium shows that KdpD senses at least two distinct signals inside the cell, those of Na(+) and NH4 (+), and it probably senses other monovalent cations in the cell. KdpD does not sense turgor.

IMPORTANCE

The expression of the Kdp K(+) transport system of E. coli occurs when cells become limited in their growth rate by the availability of K(+). Cells sense limited K(+) and try to compensate by taking up other monovalent cations, particularly Na(+) and NH4 (+). These cations are sensed in the cytoplasm by the KdpD response regulator, presumably to stimulate its kinase activity. It is shown that KdpD does not sense turgor, as was suggested earlier.

Nitrogen assimilation in Escherichia coli: putting molecular data into a systems perspective

We present a comprehensive overview of the hierarchical network of intracellular processes revolving around central nitrogen metabolism in Escherichia coli. The hierarchy intertwines transport, metabolism, signaling leading to posttranslational modification, and transcription. The protein components of the network include an ammonium transporter (AmtB), a glutamine transporter (GlnHPQ), two ammonium assimilation pathways (glutamine synthetase [GS]-glutamate synthase [glutamine 2-oxoglutarate amidotransferase {GOGAT}] and glutamate dehydrogenase [GDH]), the two bifunctional enzymes adenylyl transferase/adenylyl-removing enzyme (ATase) and uridylyl transferase/uridylyl-removing enzyme (UTase), the two trimeric signal transduction proteins (GlnB and GlnK), the two-component regulatory system composed of the histidine protein kinase nitrogen regulator II (NRII) and the response nitrogen regulator I (NRI), three global transcriptional regulators called nitrogen assimilation control (Nac) protein, leucine-responsive regulatory protein (Lrp), and cyclic AMP (cAMP) receptor protein (Crp), the glutaminases, and the nitrogen-phosphotransferase system. First, the structural and molecular knowledge on these proteins is reviewed. Thereafter, the activities of the components as they engage together in transport, metabolism, signal transduction, and transcription and their regulation are discussed. Next, old and new molecular data and physiological data are put into a common perspective on integral cellular functioning, especially with the aim of resolving counterintuitive or paradoxical processes featured in nitrogen assimilation. Finally, we articulate what still remains to be discovered and what general lessons can be learned from the vast amounts of data that are available now.

Competition between uptake of ammonium and potassium in barley and Arabidopsis roots: molecular mechanisms and physiological consequences

Plants can use ammonium (NH4+) as the sole nitrogen source, but at high NH4+ concentrations in the root medium, particularly in combination with a low availability of K+, plants suffer from NH4+ toxicity. To understand the role of K+ transporters and non-selective cation channels in K+/NH4+ interactions better, growth, NH4+ and K+ accumulation and the specific fluxes of NH4+, K+, and H+ were examined in roots of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and Arabidopsis seedlings. Net fluxes of K+ and NH4+ were negatively correlated, as were their tissue concentrations, suggesting that there is direct competition during uptake. Pharmacological treatments with the K+ transport inhibitors tetraethyl ammonium (TEA+) and gadolinium (Gd3+) reduced NH4+ influx, and the addition of TEA+ alleviated the NH4+-induced depression of root growth in germinating Arabidopsis plants. Screening of a barley root cDNA library in a yeast mutant lacking all NH4+ and K+ uptake proteins through the deletion of MEP1-3 and TRK1 and TRK2 resulted in the cloning of the barley K+ transporter HvHKT2;1. Further analysis in yeast suggested that HvHKT2;1, AtAKT1, and AtHAK5 transported NH4+, and that K+ supplied at increasing concentrations competed with this NH4+ transport. On the other hand, uptake of K+ by AtHAK5, and to a lesser extent via HvHKT2;1 and AtAKT1, was inhibited by increasing concentrations of NH4+. Together, the results of this study show that plant K+ transporters and channels are able to transport NH4+. Unregulated NH4+ uptake via these transporters may contribute to NH4+ toxicity at low K+ levels, and may explain the alleviation of NH4+ toxicity by K+.

Potassium transport in corynebacterium glutamicum is facilitated by the putative channel protein CglK, which is essential for pH homeostasis and growth at acidic pH

We studied the requirement for potassium and for potassium transport activity for the biotechnologically important bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum, which is used for large-scale production of amino acids. Different from many other bacteria, at alkaline or neutral pH, C. glutamicum is able to grow without the addition of potassium, resulting in very low cytoplasmic potassium concentrations. In contrast, at acidic pH, the ability for growth was found to depend on the presence of K+. For the first time, we provide experimental evidence that a potential potassium channel (CglK) acts as the major potassium uptake system in a bacterium and proved CglK's function directly in its natural membrane environment. A full-length CglK protein and a separate soluble protein harboring the RCK domain can be translated from the cglK gene, and both are essential for full CglK functionality. As a reason for potassium-dependent growth limitation at acidic pH, we identified the impaired capacity for internal pH homeostasis, which depends on the availability and internal accumulation of potassium. Potassium uptake via CglK was found to be relevant for major physiological processes, like the activity of the respiratory chain, and to be crucial for maintenance of the internal pH, as well as for the adjustment of the membrane potential in C. glutamicum.

The energy spilling reactions of bacteria and other organisms

For many years it was assumed that living organisms always utilized ATP in a highly efficient manner, but simple growth studies with bacteria indicated that the efficiency of biomass production was often at least 3-fold lower than the amount that would be predicted from standard biosynthetic pathways. The utilization of energy for maintenance could only explain a small portion of this discrepancy particularly when the growth rate was high. These ideas and thermodynamic arguments indicated that cells might have another avenue of energy utilization. This phenomenon has also been called 'uncoupling', 'spillage' and 'overflow metabolism', but 'energy spilling' is probably the most descriptive term. It appears that many bacteria spill energy, and the few that do not can be killed (large and often rapid decrease in viability), if the growth medium is nitrogen-limited and the energy source is in 'excess'. The lactic acid bacterium, Streptococcus bovis, is an ideal bacterium for the study of energy spilling. Because it only uses substrate level phosphorylation to generate ATP, ATP generation can be calculated with a high degree of certainty. It does not store glucose as glycogen, and its cell membrane can be easily accessed. Comparative analysis of heat production, membrane voltage, ATP production and Ohm's law indicated that the energy spilling reaction of S. bovis is mediated by a futile cycle of protons through the cell membrane. Less is known about Escherichia coli, but in this bacterium energy spilling could be mediated by a futile cycle of potassium or ammonium ions. Energy spilling is not restricted to prokaryotes and appears to occur in yeasts and in higher organisms. In man, energy spilling may be related to cancer, ageing, ischemia and cardiac failure.

Ammonium toxicity and potassium limitation in yeast

DNA microarray analysis of gene expression in steady-state chemostat cultures limited for potassium revealed a surprising connection between potassium and ammonium: potassium limits growth only when ammonium is the nitrogen source. Under potassium limitation, ammonium appears to be toxic for Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This ammonium toxicity, which appears to occur by leakage of ammonium through potassium channels, is recapitulated under high-potassium conditions by over-expression of ammonium transporters. Although ammonium toxicity is well established in metazoans, it has never been reported for yeast. To characterize the response to ammonium toxicity, we examined the filtrates of these cultures for compounds whose excretion might serve to detoxify the ammonium (such as urea in mammals). Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to assay for a wide array of metabolites, we detected excreted amino acids. The amounts of amino acids excreted increased in relation to the severity of growth impairment by ammonium, suggesting that amino acid excretion is used by yeast for ammonium detoxification.

Mutational loss of a K+ and NH4+ transporter affects the growth and endospore formation of alkaliphilic Bacillus pseudofirmus OF4

A putative transport protein (Orf9) of alkaliphilic Bacillus pseudofirmus OF4 belongs to a transporter family (CPA-2) of diverse K+ efflux proteins and cation antiporters. Orf9 greatly increased the concentration of K+ required for growth of a K+ uptake mutant of Escherichia coli. The cytoplasmic K+ content of the cells was reduced, consistent with an efflux mechanism. Orf9-dependent translocation of K+ in E. coli is apparently bidirectional, since ammonium-sensitive uptake of K+ could be shown in K+ -depleted cells. The upstream gene product Orf8 has sequence similarity to a subdomain of KTN proteins that are associated with potassium-translocating channels and transporters; Orf8 modulated the transport capacities of Orf9. No Orf9-dependent K+(Na+)/H+ antiport activity was found in membrane vesicles. Nonpolar deletion mutants in the orf9 locus of the alkaliphile chromosome exhibited no K+ -related phenotype but showed profound phenotypes in medium containing high levels of amine-nitrogen. Their patterns of growth and ammonium content suggested a physiological role for the orf9 locus in bidirectional ammonium transport. Orf9-dependent ammonium uptake was observed in right-side-out membrane vesicles of the alkaliphile wild type and the mutant with an orf8 deletion. Uptake was proton motive force dependent and was inhibited by K+. Orf9 is proposed to be designated AmhT (ammonium homeostasis). Ammonium homeostasis is important in high-amine-nitrogen settings and is particularly crucial at high pH since cytosolic ammonium accumulation interferes with cytoplasmic pH regulation. Endospore formation in amino-acid-rich medium was significantly defective and germination was modestly defective in the orf9 and orf7-orf10 deletion mutants.

The inorganic ion content of native aquatic bacteria

In this study we have quantified the ionic content and volume of native aquatic, and two cultured bacteria, by X-ray microanalysis (XRMA) in the transmission electron microscope (TEM). The cellular concentrations of magnesium (means of 630 and 710 mM) were more than an order of a magnitude higher than the outside concentrations. The internal concentrations of sodium were on average 50-180 mM, and the [K+]/[Na+] ratios were in the range of 0.1-0.5; lowest for apparently nonactive bacteria. Magnesium and chloride probably act as the major components of cell turgor, since no other inorganic ions were present in comparable amounts. Our carbon and nitrogen measurements indicated that organic solutes are not likely to be present at significant concentrations. The estimated charge of inorganic ions (Na, Mg, P, Cl, K, and Ca) gave a positive net internal charge for most cells. However, in cultures of Vibrio natriegens, the high internal chloride concentration made the net inorganic charge negative in these cells. Our results suggest that growing marine bacterioplankton have an internal environment in which magnesium is the dominating cation. These results suggest that actively growing marine bacteria are physiologically adapted to high internal concentrations of both magnesium and chloride.Key words: X-ray microanalysis, magnesium, osmolyte, marine bacteria.

Ammonium/urea-dependent generation of a proton electrochemical potential and synthesis of ATP in Bacillus pasteurii

The influence of ammonium and urea on the components of the proton electrochemical potential (delta p) and de novo synthesis of ATP was studied with Bacillus pasteurii ATCC 11859. In washed cells grown at high urea concentrations, a delta p of -56 +/- 29 mV, consisting of a membrane potential (delta psi) of -228 +/- 19 mV and of a transmembrane pH gradient (delta pH) equivalent to 172 +/- 38 mV, was measured. These cells contained only low amounts of potassium, and the addition of ammonium caused an immediate net decrease of both delta psi and delta pH, resulting in a net increase of delta p of about 49 mV and de novo synthesis of ATP. Addition of urea and its subsequent hydrolysis to ammonium by the cytosolic urease also caused an increase of delta p and ATP synthesis; a net initial increase of delta psi, accompanied by a slower decrease of delta pH in this case, was observed. Cells grown at low concentrations of urea contained high amounts of potassium and maintained a delta p of -113 +/- 26 mV, with a delta psi of -228 +/- 22 mV and a delta pH equivalent to 115 +/- 20 mV. Addition of ammonium to such cells resulted in the net decrease of delta psi and delta pH without a net increase in delta p or synthesis of ATP, whereas urea caused an increase of delta p and de novo synthesis of ATP, mainly because of a net increase of delta psi. The data reported in this work suggest that the ATP-generating system is coupled to urea hydrolysis via both an alkalinization of the cytoplasm by the ammonium generated in the urease reaction and a net increase of delta psi that is probably due to an efflux of ammonium ions. Furthermore, the findings of this study show that potassium ions are involved in the regulation of the intracellular pH and that ammonium ions may functionally replace potassium to a certain extent in reducing the membrane potential and alkalinizing the cytoplasm.

Alanine as an end product during fermentation of monosaccharides by Clostridium strain P2

The thermophilic Clostridium P2 was isolated from a semi-continuously fed reactor with high ammonium concentration. This bacterium formed substantial amounts of L-alanine as a major fermentation product from glucose, fructose and mannose. Low amounts of acetate, butyrate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen were also formed. A high partial pressure of hydrogen inhibited the degradation of the monosaccharides, whereas hydrogen removal, in the form of methanogenesis was found to be stimulatory. However, the amount of alanine produced per mole of hexose degraded did not change. Hexose degradation and alanine production were favoured by high ammonium concentrations. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies provided strong evidence that an active Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway existed and that alanine was produced via an amination of pyruvate.

Energetics of bacterial growth: balance of anabolic and catabolic reactions

Biomass formation represents one of the most basic aspects of bacterial metabolism. While there is an abundance of information concerning individual reactions that result in cell duplication, there has been surprisingly little information on the bioenergetics of growth. For many years, it was assumed that biomass production (anabolism) was proportional to the amount of ATP which could be derived from energy-yielding pathways (catabolism), but later work showed that the ATP yield (YATP) was not necessarily a constant. Continuous-culture experiments indicated that bacteria utilized ATP for metabolic reactions that were not directly related to growth (maintenance functions). Mathematical derivations showed that maintenance energy appeared to be a growth rate-independent function of the cell mass and time. Later work, however, showed that maintenance energy alone could not account for all the variations in yield. Because only some of the discrepancy could be explained by the secretion of metabolites (overflow metabolism) or the diversion of catabolism to metabolic pathways which produced less ATP, it appeared that energy-excess cultures had mechanisms of spilling energy. Bacteria have the potential to spill excess ATP in futile enzyme cycles, but there has been little proof that such cycles are significant. Recent work indicated that bacteria can also use futile cycles of potassium, ammonia, and protons through the cell membrane to dissipate ATP either directly or indirectly. The utility of energy spilling in bacteria has been a curiosity. The deprivation of energy from potential competitors is at best a teleological explanation that cannot be easily supported by standard theories of natural selection. The priming of intracellular intermediates for future growth or protection of cells from potentially toxic end products (e.g., methylglyoxal) seems a more plausible explanation.

Control and regulation of metabolic fluxes in microbes by substrates and enzymes

The control of enzymes and substrates on the flux through microbial metabolic pathways can be quantified in terms of flux control coefficients. In pathways involving group transfer, the summation theorem for flux control by the enzymes has to be modified: the sum of control by all enzymes is between 1 and 2. The phosphoenolpyruvate:glucose phosphotransferase system is such a pathway. Experimental determination of the control by the enzymes in this pathway is under way. The control of the enzymes on the glycolytic flux in yeast is low, with the possible exception of the uptake step. In Klebsiella pneumoniae potassium and ammonium ions can simultaneously be 'limiting', (i.e. have significant control on growth) at pH6, but not at pH8. This may be due to the fact that at pH8 the high-affinity potassium uptake system is absent.

Quantification of control of microbial metabolism by substrates and enzymes

The control of substrates or enzymes on metabolic processes can be expressed in quantitative terms. Most of the experimental material found in the literature, however, has been obtained under non-standardized conditions, precluding definite conclusions concerning the magnitude of control. A number of representative examples is discussed and it is concluded that a quantitative analysis of the factors that control metabolism is essential for understanding the microbial behaviour.

The role of futile cycles in the energetics of bacterial growth

In this contribution we describe the occurrence of futile cycles in growing bacteria. These cycles are thought to be active when organisms contain two uptake systems for a particular nutrient (one with a high, the other with a low affinity for its substrate). The high-affinity system is responsible for uptake of the nutrient, some of which is subsequently lost to the medium again via leakage through the low-affinity-system. A special futile cycle is caused under some growth conditions by the extremely rapid diffusion of ammonia through bacterial membranes. When the ammonium ion is taken up via active transport, the couple NH3/NH4+ will act as an uncoupler. This is aggravated by the chemical similarity of the potassium and the ammonium ion, which leads to ammonium ion transport via the Kdp potassium transport system when the potassium concentration in the medium is low. Other examples of futile cycles, such as those caused by the production of fatty acids by fermentation, are briefly discussed.

Quantification of multiple-substrate controlled growth--simultaneous ammonium and glucose limitation in chemostat cultures of Klebsiella pneumoniae

In chemostat cultures of Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. aerogenes) NCTC 418 we measured the concentrations of glucose and ammonium and we varied the ratio of the (limiting) concentrations of glucose and ammonium in the feed medium. By doing this at different dilution rates we found a range where growth rate varies with either concentration in the culture when the other concentration in the culture is held constant. This proves that within this range, dual-substrate controlled growth occurs. Dual substrate-controlled growth was accompanied by yield coefficients for glucose and for ammonium that were intermediate between the yield coefficients obtained for single glucose or single ammonium limitation. We quantified the control by either substrate in terms of the flux control coefficient with respect to that substrate, where flux refers to growth rate. Dual-substrate controlled growth is reflected by the finding that both flux control coefficients exceed zero, simultaneously. In the transition of glucose to ammonium limitation, the control gradually shifts from glucose to ammonium.