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Held LI, Sessions SK. Reflections on Bateson's rule: Solving an old riddle about why extra legs are mirror‐symmetric. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2019; 332:219-237. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lewis I. Held
- Department of Biological SciencesTexas Tech University Lubbock Texas
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Abstract
Recent studies of gene expression in the developing fruitfly leg support a model--Meinhardt's Boundary Model--which seems to contradict the prevailing paradigm for pattern formation in the imaginal discs of Drosophila--the Polar Coordinate Model. Reasoning from geometric first principles, this article examines the strengths and weaknesses of these hypotheses, plus some baffling phenomena that neither model can comfortably explain. The deeper question at issue is: how does the fly's genome encode the three-dimensional anatomy of the adult? Does it demarcate territories and boundaries (as in a geopolitical map) and then use those boundaries and their points of intersection as a scaffolding on which to erect the anatomy (the Boundary Model)? Or does it assign cellular fates within a relatively seamless coordinate system (the Polar Coordinate Model)? The existence of hybrid Cartesian-polar models shows that the alternatives may not be so clear-cut: a single organ might utilize different systems that are spatially superimposed or temporally sequential.
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Affiliation(s)
- L I Held
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409, USA
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Interactions of decapentaplegic, wingless, and Distal-less in the Drosophila leg. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994; 203:310-319. [PMID: 28305824 DOI: 10.1007/bf00457802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/1993] [Revised: 09/01/1993] [Accepted: 10/14/1993] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The genes decapentaplegic, wingless, and Distalless appear to be instrumental in constructing the anatomy of the adult Drosophila leg. In order to investigate how these genes function and whether they act coordinately, we analyzed the leg phenotypes of the single mutants and their inter se double mutant compounds. In decapentaplegic the tarsi frequently exhibit dorsal deficiencies which suggest that the focus of gene action may reside dorsally rather than distally. In wingless the tarsal hinges are typically duplicated along with other dorsal structures, confirming that the hinges arise dorsally. The plane of symmetry in double-ventral duplications caused by decapentaplegic is virtually the same as the plane in double-dorsal duplications caused by wingless. It divides the fate map into two parts, each bisected by the dorsoventral axis. In the double mutant decapentaplegic wingless the most ventral and dorsal tarsal structures are missing, consistent with the notion that both gene products function as morphogens. In wingless Distal-less compounds the legs are severely truncated, indicating an important interaction between these genes. Distal-less and decapentaplegic manifest a relatively mild synergism when combined.
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Fitch CL, Girton L, Girton JR. The suppressor of forked locus in Drosophila melanogaster: genetic and molecular analyses. Genetica 1992; 85:185-203. [PMID: 1355750 DOI: 10.1007/bf00132271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The suppressor of forked, su(f) locus is one of a class of loci in Drosophila whose mutant alleles are trans-acting allele-specific modifiers of transposable element-insertion mutations at other loci. Mutations of su(f) suppress gypsy insert alleles of forked and enhance the copia insert allele white apricot. Our investigations of su(f) include genetic and molecular analyses of 19 alleles to determine the numbers and types of genetic functions present at the locus. Our results suggest the su(f) locus contains multiple genetic functions. There are two distinct modifier functions and two vital functions. One modifier function is specific for enhancement and the other for suppression. One vital function is required for normal ecdysterone production in the third larval instar, the other is not. We present a restriction map of the su(f) genomic region and the results of an RFLP analysis of several su(f) alleles.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Fitch
- Department of Zoology and Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames 50010
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Held LI. Arrangement of bristles as a function of bristle number on a leg segment inDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990; 199:48-62. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01681532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/1989] [Accepted: 04/02/1990] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Lienhard MC, Stocker RF. Sensory projection patterns of supernumerary legs and aristae inD. melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1987. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402440203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Bellen HJ, Gregory BK, Olsson CL, Kiger JA. Two Drosophila learning mutants, dunce and rutabaga, provide evidence of a maternal role for cAMP on embryogenesis. Dev Biol 1987; 121:432-44. [PMID: 3034702 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(87)90180-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The dunce gene of Drosophila melanogaster encodes a cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase (form II). Mutant dunce flies have elevated levels of cAMP and exhibit a number of defects including learning deficiencies and female sterility. Two partial suppressors of the female sterility phenotype have been selected in an X chromosome containing a dunce null mutation. Both suppressors are associated with reduced AC2 activity. Complementation analyses suggest that both are alleles of the learning mutant rutabaga. Females homozygous for dunce null mutations that abolish PDE activity do not deposit eggs. The suppressors exhibit differential effects on egg deposition and production of progeny; double-mutant females deposit many eggs that fail to hatch, but some develop to adults. These adult progeny exhibit morphological defects that are confined mostly to the second and third thoracic segments or to the first five abdominal segments. These observations demonstrate that the dunce gene is required in adult females for egg laying and that the dunce gene provides an essential maternal function required for normal development of the zygote. Clonal analysis, employing the dominant female-sterile mutation ovoD1, demonstrates that the former requirement for PDE activity resides in somatic cells and that the latter requirement resides in germ line cells. Female germ line cells homozygous for a dunce null mutation produce oocytes that fail to develop. Thus, homozygous dunce null-mutant zygotes develop to adults solely because of the enzyme or mRNA present in the oocytes of heterozygous mothers. Mutant alleles of rutabaga act in the germ line cells to partially suppress the developmental defects caused by dunce mutations. Thus the rutabaga gene, as well as the dunce gene, functions in both somatic and germ line cells.
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Developmental genetics of a P element induced allele of suppressor-of-forked in Drosophila melanogaster. Dev Genes Evol 1986; 195:334-337. [PMID: 28306058 DOI: 10.1007/bf00376066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/1985] [Accepted: 04/18/1986] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In this paper we describe a new allele of suppressor of forked, su(f) hd37, referred to as hd37, which was isolated in a hybrid dysgenesis mutation screen and is shown to be P induced by its high frequency of reversion in hybrid dysgenic crosses, and by in situ hybridization. hd37 suppresses forked and fails to complement the forked suppression of known su(f) alleles. However, it complements the recessive lethality of alleles in both of the su(f) lethal complementation groups. We also describe a new phenotypic effect of su(f) alleles, the enhancement of Minute(3)i 55. Recessive lethal alleles enhance the lethal effects of this Minute, but hd37 does not. The temperature sensitive period for forked bristle suppression by hd37 was found to be very narrow, consisting of a short interval (12-18 h) immediately before bristle formation. These results suggest that the several genetic functions associated with this locus may be genetically separable.
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Held LI, Duarte CM, Derakhshanian K. Extra tarsal joints and abnormal cuticular polarities in various mutants ofDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986; 195:145-157. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02439432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/1985] [Accepted: 11/07/1985] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Tiong SY, Russell MA. Effect of the bithorax mutation on determination in duplicating Drosophila imaginal discs. Dev Biol 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(86)90162-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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11
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Partial hyperploidy of the X-chromosome inDrosophila hydei leading to duplication of male gonadal and genital structures. Dev Genes Evol 1985. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00868151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Effects of high-temperature treatments on development, viability, and heat-shock response in a temperature-sensitive cell-lethal mutant ofDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1985. [DOI: 10.1002/dvg.1020060103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Holden JJA, Walker VK, Maroy P, Watson KL, White BN, Gausz J. Analysis of molting and metamorphosis in the ecdysteroid-deficient mutantL(3)3DTS ofDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1985. [DOI: 10.1002/dvg.1020060302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Shearn A, Martin A, Davis K, Hersperger E. Genetic analysis of transdetermination in Drosophila. I. The effects of varying growth parameters using a temperature-sensitive mutation. Dev Biol 1984; 106:135-46. [PMID: 6436085 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(84)90069-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The heat-sensitive mutation of Drosophila melanogaster l(3)c4(3)hs1, causes mutant larvae raised at a restrictive temperature to have abnormally large wing discs. The large size of these discs is a disc-autonomous property and results from an increase in the number rather than the size of wing disc cells. We have used wing discs from this mutant to further investigate properties of transdetermination which had previously been investigated with nonmutant discs. Transdetermination can occur in nonmutant discs when the proliferative phase of imaginal disc development is extended by wounding discs and culturing them in vivo. The results indicate that additional proliferation in the absence of wounding does not lead to transdetermination. There is a correlation between the extent of growth of a cultured disc and the probability that it will undergo transdetermination. The results suggest that this correlation does not depend on a differential rate of cell division. Finally, the results indicate that the cells which give rise to transdetermination are at an equivalent developmental stage no later than that characteristic of eye-antenna disc cells before the third larval instar.
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Wieschaus E, Nusslein-Volhard C, Kluding H. Krüppel, a gene whose activity is required early in the zygotic genome for normal embryonic segmentation. Dev Biol 1984; 104:172-86. [PMID: 6428949 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(84)90046-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Embryos homozygous for Krüppel die as late embryos with an altered segmentation pattern. In strong alleles the normal thoracic and anterior abdominal segments are replaced by a partial mirror image duplication of the posterior abdomen. Weak alleles cause smaller pattern deletions in the thorax and abdomen and are not associated with mirror image duplications. The altered segmentation pattern can be traced back to 12 min after the onset of gastrulation, when the shorter germ bands in homozygous Kr embryos provide a first indication of abnormal patterning. The mutant was mapped to position 107.6 at the tip of the right arm of the second chromosome, cytologically to bands 60F2-5. Analysis of homozygous deficiency embryos indicate that the phenotype produced by strong point mutations probably represents the amorphic condition. The requirement for Kr+ gene activity is strictly zygotic. Maternal dosage of Kr+ has no effect on the embryonic phenotype, nor does homozygosity for Kr prevent germ cells from making normal eggs capable of normal embryonic development when fertilized by wild-type sperm. The requirement for Kr+ seems restricted to embryogenesis. Homozygous clones induced in imaginal discs during larval development survive and develop normally and in vivo cultures established from homozygous embryos proliferate normally and metamorphose into adult structures of normal morphology.
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Girton JR, Kumor AL. The role of cell death in the induction of pattern abnormalities in a cell-lethal mutation of drosophila. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1984. [DOI: 10.1002/dvg.1020050205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Thoracic abnormalities in tumorous-headDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1984; 193:42-47. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00848599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/1983] [Accepted: 07/27/1983] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
The growth of pattern triplications induced by a 48-hr 29 degrees C treatment given to larvae homo- or hemizygous for a ts cell-lethal mutation was examined to determine which structures result from new, regulative growth and which are produced by the original imaginal disc cells. Pattern triplications contain one complete leg pattern (orthodrome) and two partial patterns (antidrome and paradrome). The results of two morphological analyses and one somatic clonal analysis suggest that in triplications in which the antidrome and paradrome become more complete distally (diverge) the paradrome is formed by a portion of the original leg pattern, and the antidrome and orthodrome are formed by extra, regulative growth. A different result is suggested for triplications in which the antidrome and paradrome become less complete distally (converge). In these, the orthodrome appears to be formed by the original leg pattern and the antidrome and paradrome by extra growth. These results agree with predictions based on the polar coordinate model of positional information.
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Abstract
A model is proposed for pattern formation in secondary embryonic fields. It is stipulated that the boundaries, resulting from the primary embryonic organization of a developing organism, act as organizing regions for secondary embryonic fields, e.g., imaginal discs in insects. This boundary mechanism would allow very reliable pattern formation in the course of development: Primary positional information leads to cells of different determination, separated by sharp borders. At these borders, in turn, positional information would be generated for the next finer subdivision, and so on. This occurs if two or more differently determined cell types (e.g., compartments) cooperate for the production of a morphogenetic substance. A high concentration of the morphogen would appear at the common boundary of the cell types involved. Many experiments reported in the literature, for instance, the formation of duplicated and triplicated insect legs and the regeneration-duplication phenomenon of imaginal disc fragments can be explained under this assumption. The proposed boundary mechanism provides a molecularly feasible basis for the polar coordinate model.
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Pleiotropic effects of the ‘ecdysoneless-1’ mutation of Drosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1983. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00325905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Girton JR, Berns MW. Pattern abnormalities induced in Drosophila imaginal discs by an ultraviolet laser microbeam. Dev Biol 1982; 91:73-7. [PMID: 6807730 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(82)90009-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Girton JR, Russell MA. An analysis of compartmentalization in pattern duplications induced by a cell-lethal mutation in Drosophila. Dev Biol 1981; 85:55-64. [PMID: 7250517 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(81)90235-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Abstract
A revision of the "polar coordinate model" shows how pattern formation in diverse regenerating systems can be understood in terms of strictly local cell interactions.
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Deak II. A model linking segmentation, compartmentalization and regeneration in Drosophila development. J Theor Biol 1980; 84:477-504. [PMID: 7431935 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5193(80)80015-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Girton JR, Russell MA. A clonal analysis of pattern duplication in a temperature-sensitive cell-lethal mutant of Drosophila melanogaster. Dev Biol 1980; 77:1-21. [PMID: 6772498 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(80)90453-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Bryant PJ, Girton JR. Genetics of pattern formation. BASIC LIFE SCIENCES 1980; 16:109-27. [PMID: 6779789 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-7968-3_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Strub S. Leg regeneration in insects. An experimental analysis in Drosophila and a new interpretation. Dev Biol 1979; 69:31-45. [PMID: 446896 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(79)90272-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Pattern specification in imaginal discs ofDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979; 186:1-25. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00848105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/1978] [Accepted: 10/30/1978] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Development of cuticular patterns in the legs of a cell lethal mutant ofDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1978; 185:37-57. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00848214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/1977] [Accepted: 03/15/1978] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Clark WC, Russell MA. The correlation of lysosomal activity and adult phenotype in a cell-lethal mutant of Drosophila. Dev Biol 1977; 57:160-73. [PMID: 863104 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(77)90362-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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