Gambling behaviors among high school students in the Quebec area

Contentious Issues and Future Directions in Adolescent Gambling Research

Background. There is currently considerable public policy and regulatory interest in the nature and prevalence of underage gambling. Research in this area has purported to show that adolescents are at elevated risk of problem gambling and that early exposure to gambling or gambling-like activities could be a potential precursor to future harm. Method. In this commentary, we provide a critical appraisal of these arguments with reference to major studies in the field of gambling studies. It is argued that adolescent gambling research is a contentious area. Some questions remain concerning the validity of adolescent problem gambling measures, the strength of the association between adolescent and adult gambling and the impact of simulated gambling activities. Results. The paper summarises the conceptual and methodological issues that should be considered and addressed in future studies to strengthen the validity of research in this area. Conclusion. The paper encourages the greater use of harm-based measures, longitudinal and individual-level transition analyses and questions that capture the influence of activities rather than just their temporal sequencing.

Problem gambling in adolescents: what are the psychological, social and financial consequences?

BACKGROUND

The paper examines the roles of sociodemographic traits, family quality and risk behaviour in adolescent problem gambling, with focus on the psychological, social and financial consequences from the socio-ecological model approach. This model emphasizes the most important risk-protective factors in the development and maintenance of problem gambling on an individual level, a relationship level, as well as a community and societal level.

METHODS

The research was done using the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Inventory with a sample of 366 participants, 239 females (65.3%) using descriptive statistics and t-test, ANOVA, correlation and hierarchical regression analysis.

RESULTS

Males reported significantly higher gambling consequences on all scales (p < .001) and significantly more risk behaviour (p < .05). Age was significant for psychological consequences (p < .01), problem gambling (p < .01) and risk behaviour (p < .001) with older participants scoring higher. Students with lower school success reported significantly higher psychological consequences of gambling (p < .01), higher risk behaviour activity (p < .001) and lower family life satisfaction (p < .001). The psychological, financial and social consequences were positively correlated with problem gambling (p < .001). Age (p < .05), gender (p < .001), school success (p < .01) and the father's education level (p. < 05) were significant predictors of problem gambling, with older male adolescents who struggle academically and have lower educated fathers being at greater risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicate an important relation between adolescent gambling behaviour and very serious psychological, social and financial consequences. There is a constellation of risk factors that likely place certain individuals at high risk for problem gambling.

Macau parents' perceptions of underage children's gambling involvement

Objectives

The study examined Macau parents’ perceptions of underage children’s gambling involvement, and parents’ attitudes towards help seeking if their children had a gambling problem. The parents’ gambling behavior in the past year was also investigated.

Methods

This is a parent survey using a self-administered questionnaire. A convenience sample of 311 Macau parents (106 fathers and 205 mothers) with underage children aged 3–17 years was recruited. The response rate is 77.8%. The participants were asked if they had ever approved or taught their underage children to gamble, and how did they award their children when they won in gambling games. The parents were also asked if they had gambled in the previous 12 months, and their gambling behavior was assessed by the Chinese Problem Gambling Severity Index (CPGSI).

Results

Half of the parents surveyed (52%) did not approve underage gambling but 81% taught their underage children to play different gambling games. Children were awarded with money (55%), praises (17.5%), toys (15%) and food (12.5%) when they won in games. One-fifth (20.6%) were distressed with their children’s gambling problem. Many (68.8%) were willing to seek help to cope with children’s gambling problems. Only 21.2% (n = 66) of the parents reported gambling in the past year. Using the CPGSI, 4.5% of these gamblers could be identified as problem gamblers, and 16.7% were moderate-risk gamblers.

Conclusion

The study results indicate parent education should be included in prevention of underage gambling.

Bread, milk and a Tattslotto ticket: the interpretive repertoires of young adult gambling in Australia

The discourse of Australian young adults who gamble regularly was analysed to explore key dilemmas and challenges of a generation who grew up with the positive and negative impacts of gambling advertisements. Qualitative interviews of seven young recreational gamblers who regularly frequent gaming machine venues were conducted. The discourse that they used to describe their gambling involvement, motivation, development and subjective views were analysed and three central repertoires: 'Culture not self,' 'If it makes you happy,' and 'No problem here!' were identified. The current findings demonstrate the participants' attempts to understand and legitimise their gambling. Further, it was suggested that young adults face a series of dilemmas when deciding whether to gamble and to what extent they gamble. Their discourse highlights the tension between individual agency, societal expectations and familial influence. The respondents primarily gambled for social reasons in a manner which they perceived as culturally acceptable. The importance of harm minimization and public awareness campaigns directed at young adults was also discussed.

From adolescent to adult gambling: an analysis of longitudinal gambling patterns in South Australia

Although there are many cross-sectional studies of adolescent gambling, very few longitudinal investigations have been undertaken. As a result, little is known about the individual stability of gambling behaviour and the extent to which behaviour measured during adolescence is related to adult behaviour. In this paper, we report the results of a 4-wave longitudinal investigation of gambling behaviour in a probability sample of 256 young people (50 % male, 50 % female) who were interviewed in 2005 at the age of 16-18 years and then followed through to the age of 20-21 years. The results indicated that young people showed little stability in their gambling. Relatively few reported gambling on the same individual activities consistently over time. Gambling participation rates increased rapidly as young people made the transition from adolescence to adulthood and then were generally more stable. Gambling at 15-16 years was generally not associated with gambling at age 20-21 years. These results highlight the importance of individual-level analyses when examining gambling patterns over time.

Risk-taking/gambling-like behavior in preschool children

The types and characteristics of risk-taking or gambling-like behaviors in children are not well understood. Social learning, as one potential etiological factor of risktaking behavior in preschool children, was empirically examined. Prior to playing a risk-taking game, children in the experimental group were exposed to a peer model who had ostensibly won a large prize, whereas control children were exposed to a peer model who had won nothing. Children in the experimental group initiated more risks to win the large prize in the high-risk situation than children in the control group. The results indicated that modeling can enhance risk-taking/gambling-like behavior in young children. Parallels to compulsive gambling in adults, and recommendations for future research were also discussed.

A review of two measures of pathological gambling in the United States

This paper addresses a debate that has emerged in the field of pathological gambling research. This debate concerns measurement of the prevalence of pathological gambling in the general population. Two instruments have been used to measure prevalence in the United States, the South Oaks Gambling Screen and the Cumulative Clinical Signs Method. These instruments are described and several problems with the statistical properties of the Cumulative Clinical Signs Method are discussed. The authors conclude with a call for continued research in the area of prevalence studies of pathological gambling.

Epidemiological surveys of pathological gambling: Critique and suggestions for modification

Epidemiological studies of problem and pathological gambling were examined for their accuracy. Fundamental flaws and biases were found in these surveys. These include problems with survey instruments; nonresponses and refusal bias; the exclusion of institutionalized populations; exclusion of other groups; and failure to protect against denial on the part of the respondent when others are present near the telephone. Based on the issues discussed, one can reasonably be expected to assume that most epidemiological surveys seriously underestimate the extent of problem and pathological gambling. Alternative strategies for addressing these issues are discussed. These strategies include the use of field interviews, surveys of institutionalized populations, frequent player surveys and significant other surveys. The value and potential problems of these approaches are also discussed.

The sales of lottery tickets to minors in Illinois

Fifty retail outlets were tested with a 16-year-old girl in eight central Illinois cities to determine the willingness of retail clerks to illegally sell a lottery ticket to a minor. A total of 49 establishments or 98% sold. In two instances the youth was denied access to cigarettes but sold a lottery ticket despite the sales of both to a minor under age 18 being illegal in Illinois. A very low cost method of correcting the problem is presented.

A developmental perspective of gambling behavior in children and adolescents

Although it has been determined that gambling is a popular activity amongst the young, there seems to be a lack of studies examining developmental differences in children's gambling behavior. This study examines developmental differences in children's blackjack gambling behavior. One hundred and four students (51 males; 53 females) from grades 4, 6, and 8 completed a questionnaire examining their gambling behavior in general and individually played a computerized blackjack game with the following data being recorded: percentage of accuracy, amounts of money bet, gross winnings, percentage of wins, number of hands played, and end balance. Findings revealed few developmental differences in prevalence and frequency of gambling behavior and performance on a blackjack task. Males were found to wager greater amounts of money and have larger gross winnings than females on the blackjack task. Furthermore, males were more likely to view gambling as involving both large amounts of skill and luck, thus suggesting an illusion of control for gambling activities. The results are discussed from a cognitive developmental perspective.

The prevalence of problem and pathological gambling: A critical analysis

Prevalence of pathological gambling refers to the percentage of cases of pathological gambling occurring in the community at a given time. Prevalence studies conducted in different principalities throughout the world are reviewed, and it is found that none of them conforms to this definition of prevalence. The major error in all but the most recent surveys conducted is identified as the use of questions which ask whether gambling-related problems have ever occurred rather than whether they are currently occurring. This error will lead to an over-estimation of the prevalence of pathological gambling in society. The second major error identified in nearly all studies involves the accuracy of the screens being used to assess whether or not an individual is a pathological gambler. Concerns about the efficiency of the South Oaks Gambling Screen have not yet been satisfactorily resolved. None-the-less, the widespread use of the South Oaks Gambling Screen has made a valuable contribution to international comparisons of prevalence studies. Future work that explores the emerging relationship between levels of personal expenditure on gambling, types of gambling product and gambling-related problems are recommended.

Gambling among primary school students

This study identifies the gambling behavior of 1,320 primary school students aged 8 to 12 of the 4th, 5th and 6th grades. Eighty-six percent admitted to having, at some time or another, bet money. Lotteries are the most popular form of gambling for this age group. Sixty-one percent of these students gamble with lotteries. In descending order of popularity, other games played by students were: bingo, card-playing for money, bets on sports, wagering on specific events, video gambling (video poker and slot machines), and finally betting on games of skill. Gambling behaviors differed according to gender. More than 40% of respondents reported gambling once a week or more for at least one game. Because of the early development of gambling behavior in children, prevention programs for pathological gambling should be implemented as early as the fourth grade.

Parents' Perceptions of Adolescent Gambling: A Canadian National Study

Previous unsubstantiated reports by children and adolescents suggest tacit parental acceptance of their gambling behaviour. A Canadian national survey of parents with teens between the ages of 13 and 18 revealed that in general parents view adolescent gambling as a relatively unimportant issue compared to other potentially risky behaviours. Parental attitudes toward youth gambling, their knowledge and awareness of youth gambling prevention programs, and their gambling behaviours with their children suggest that gambling has become normalized, with few parents being aware of the potential seriousness of youth gambling. The results are interpreted with the aim of improving harm minimization and prevention initiatives.

Personality, perceived luck and gambling attitudes as predictors of gambling involvement

A quantitative observational study was undertaken to examine the relationship between individual factors and level of gambling involvement, in particular problem gambling (PG). The specific factors under study were personality, perceived luck, and attitudes towards gambling. A sample of university students (N = 185) completed a battery of questionnaires, consisting of the 16PF, Canadian Problem Gambling Index, Belief in Good Luck Scale (BIGL), Gambling Attitudes Scale (GAS), and the Impulsive Non-Conformity subscale (ImpNon) from the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences. Four groups were formed (Non-PG, Low-Risk, Moderate-Risk, and PG). Personality profiles varied between groups, and there were significant main effects and interaction effects on gender and personality factors. The PG group was higher on impulsivity, and belief in luck, and had more positive attitudes towards gambling. Multiple Regression Analysis and Discriminant Functions Analysis, using variables including some 16PF factors, BIGL and GAS variables, produced models that were highly predictive of gambling severity and gambling membership. In both models, impulsivity was the strongest predictor. These results were discussed in terms of their implications for future research and treatment of PG.

Adolescent gambling: a review of an emerging field of research

PURPOSE

The purpose of this review was to summarize the research on adolescent gambling with implications for research and prevention or intervention.

METHOD

The methodology involved a comprehensive and systematic search of "adolescent or youth gambling" in three diverse electronic databases (MedlineAdvanced, PsycINFO, and Sociological Abstracts) and three peer-reviewed journals (International Journal of Gambling Studies, International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, and Journal of Gambling Issues).

RESULTS

The search resulted in 137 articles (1985-2010) focusing on gambling among youth aged between 9 and 21 years: 103 quantitative, 8 qualitative, and 26 non-empirical. The study of adolescent gambling can be summarized as follows: (a) it is conducted by a relatively small group of researchers in Britain, Canada, and the United States; (b) it is primarily prevalence-focused, quantitative, descriptive, school-based, and atheoretical; (c) it has most often been published in the Journal of Gambling Studies; (d) it is most often examined in relation to alcohol use; (e) it has relatively few valid and reliable screening instruments that are developmentally appropriate for adolescents, and (f) it lacks racially diverse samples.

CONCLUSION

Four recommendations are presented for both research and prevention or intervention which are as follows: (1) to provide greater attention to the development and validation of survey instruments or diagnostic criteria to assess adolescent problem gambling; (2) to begin to develop and test more gambling prevention or intervention strategies; (3) to not only examine the co-morbidity of gambling and alcohol abuse, but also include other behaviors such as sexual activity; and (4) to pay greater attention to racial and ethnic differences in the study of adolescent gambling.

The convergence of gambling and digital media: implications for gambling in young people

Adolescents' use of the Internet and other digital media for the purpose of gambling represents a serious concern in modern society. This paper overviews some of the available monetary and non-monetary forms of gambling within new digital and online media and monetary forms of games with gambling-like experiences. With reference to current psychological knowledge on the risk factors that promote adolescent gambling, it is suggested that new gambling technologies may: (a) make gambling more accessible and attractive to young people, (b) may promote factually incorrect information about gambling, (c) provide an easy escape from real world problems such as depression and social isolation, (d) create a gambling environment that easily facilitates peer pressures to gamble, (e) ease parental transmission of gambling attitudes and beliefs, and (f) make gambling more ubiquitous and socially acceptable. The unique risks of Internet gambling for young people are critically discussed, as well as the lack of restricted classification for video games and other media that feature interactive, non-monetary forms of gambling.

Knowledge and beliefs about gambling in Australian secondary school students and their implications for education strategies

This study investigated the nature of gambling-related knowledge and beliefs in a survey study of 2,669 students aged 13-17 years in South Australia. Students were classified as pathological gamblers, at risk, or not at risk based upon the DSM-IV-J, and their responses to questions relating to objective odds, probabilities, and common misperceptions were compared. The study confirmed previous studies which have shown that pathological gamblers are more susceptible to erroneous beliefs concerning randomness and chance, but do not differ in terms of their knowledge of objective odds. These findings were discussed in terms of Ladouceur's notion of "cognitive switching" and the distinction drawn between "hot" and "cold" cognitions in clinical outcome studies. The implications for school-based education programs are examined with attention given to the potential value of role-playing and simulations in encouraging student reflection and self-awareness.

Motives and methods of under-age casino gamblers

Numerous studies have documented that under-age gambling is quite common. The present study employs interviews of 48 university students who gambled under-age to determine the motives and methods associated with casino gambling by minors. The information gathered in these interviews indicates that access to casinos is easily attained, that the risk of exposure once gambling is minimal, and the motivations of under-age gamblers differ in important ways from that of adults, as access to alcohol, accompanying parents, and the desire to experience the "forbidden fruit" of casino gambling are commonly mentioned motivations by under-age gamblers.

Pathological gambling in Montreal's Chinese community: an anthropological perspective

Pathological gambling has been identified as a major issue in Montreal's Chinese community. A variety of sources attest to the fact that, though we live in an increasingly heterogeneous society, the services provided to minority communities for preventing and treating pathological gambling are inadequate. An anthropological approach that takes into account cultural characteristics of one's community could lead to better strategies for acknowledgement, definition, diagnosis and treatment of pathological gambling among culturally different communities. Research paths that could help to provide effective treatment and services to specific populations are suggested. An overview of the way the Chinese view gambling, pathological gambling and treatment is presented. The concepts of fate, destiny and luck in Chinese thought, as well as Montreal's Chinese community social norms related to gambling are then described. The incorporation of those cultural understandings in future studies and treatment attempts is suggested.

[Efficiency of a gambling prevention program for youths: results from the pilot study]

A meta-analysis of North American studies indicates that the prevalence rate of pathological gambling varies between 4.4% and 7.4% among adolescents. Pathological gambling is thus not a phenomenon that suddenly appears once youths reach an adult age. On the contrary, significant contact with gambling occurs in childhood adolescence. For this reason, it is important to develop an effective gambling prevention program that will reduce the risk that youths will develop gambling problems. The information promoted in the prevention program our research team created and evaluated here teaches youths to recognize the traps of gambling activities, while enabling them to make an informed decision as to their eventual participation in those activities. The program is based on knowledge and recognition of key indices that can be easily identified as warning signs of a loss of control. It is predicted that youths who participate in this prevention program will improve their knowledge of gambling activities and will develop a more realistic attitude towards those activities than youths from a control group. The experimental group's problem-solving skills are also expected to improve. An experimental design (pre-test, post-test and follow-ups with control group) was used to evaluate the program's effectiveness. Overall, 1193 youths participated in this study. The prevention program involves three 60-minute meetings. The objectives of these meetings are the following: (meeting #1) improve youths' knowledge of gambling activities and help them acquire a more realistic attitude towards these activities; (meeting #2) teach a structured problem-solving approach to resist to peer-pressure; (meeting #3) inform youths of the consequences that may be associated with abusive participation in gambling and teach them to recognize warning signs of a loss of control over gambling habits.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

(a) knowledge of and attitudes towards gambling and gambling activities; (b) problem-solving skills; (c) frequency of participation in gambling activities; (d) discussion with relatives, friends and teachers regarding gambling activities and attention paid towards gambling habits among close friends and family. Participation in the gambling prevention program significantly improves youths' knowledge of the real probabilities of winning and the pitfalls included in gambling activities and favours the development of a more realistic attitude towards these activities. However, the participation in the prevention program does not help to improve their problem-solving skills. Nonetheless, it leads more youths to talk about gambling with their parents and teachers, and enables them to be more aware of the gambling habits of their friends and family. Finally, note that it was impossible to verify any decrease in gambling habits as the majority of participants (62%) were non or very occasional gamblers. However, no iatrogenic effect was observed on the frequency of participation in gambling activities. Aside the positive impact of the program on the attitudes and knowledge of students, participation in the preventive sessions contributed to create a dialogue with adults and increased youths' interest in the gambling habits of their friends and family. These discussions enabled the youths to validate the information they received during class, to consolidate what they learned during the prevention sessions, and favour the dissemination of this knowledge beyond the scope of the academic environment. The results obtained regarding youths' attitudes and knowledge demonstrate that attitude modification takes place progressively. However, once well assimilated, these new attitudes seem to take hold in a fairly durable way. On the other hand, acquisition of knowledge seems to take place immediately after the theoretical concepts are taught. Yet, they slightly decreased before stabilising a few months later. This suggests that assimilation of new knowledge may be optimized by the addition of an intervention session a couple of months after the end of the intervention. Even if it was impossible to verify any decrease in participants' gambling habits, it is possible to think that the impact of participation in the gambling prevention program could be observable and measurable within a few years. However, only a long-term follow-up study would make it possible to assess whether participation in the program does indeed contribute to decreasing gambling habits and the number of youths who regularly participate in gambling activities. Despite the non-significant results observed for problem-solving skills, it seems nonetheless important to include this component, which benefits from great theoretical support, especially within the framework of prevention programs targeting youths. However, the teaching method must be changed in order to maximize the intervention's effectiveness. Despite some methodological limitations observed during the evaluation of this program, the results obtained clearly demonstrate that participation in the prevention program significantly improves youths' attitudes and knowledge regarding gambling activities. The teaching of accurate knowledge and realistic attitudes towards gambling should help youths to recognize the cognitive traps inherent to gambling activities and thus contribute, over the long run, to decrease the number of youths with gambling problems.

Parental Modeling, Attachment, and Supervision as Moderators of Adolescent Gambling

Utilizing Jessor's Problem Behavior Theory as a theoretical foundation, 116 male and female students in grades 9-12 (mean age 16.8) from a Midwestern urban high school were surveyed to determine the prevalence and relationship among gambling behavior and parental and peer influences. To measure these variables, the following instruments were used: The SOGS-RA, the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment-Parent Scale, and The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire-Parental Monitoring and Supervision Scale. Almost all of the students (91%) reported gambling at least once in their lifetime while 36.2% reported gambling once a week, 19% reported gambling on a daily basis, and 26% were classified as problem gamblers (10% using the "narrow" SOGS-RA criteria). Parental gambling was related to levels of past year gambling as well as increased likelihood of being classified as a problem gambler. Increased parental attachment was also associated with decreased levels of adolescent gambling, while decreased parental trust and communication resulted in increased problem gambling. Measures of parental monitoring and supervision found similar outcomes in that increased monitoring and supervision resulted in lower levels of adolescent gambling. Additionally, when peer influences were moderated by parental influences, there was a moderating effect on gambling behavior. This study illuminates the continued importance parents play in both risk enhancing and risk inhibiting influences on adolescent participation in problem behaviors.

Opportunities for video lottery terminal gambling in Montréal: an environmental analysis

BACKGROUND

In the province of Québec, video lottery terminal (VLT) gambling has proliferated under government control since 1993. The aims of this study were to describe the spatial distribution of video lottery terminals (VLTs) in the municipalities of Montréal and Laval and to identify neighbourhood socio-economic conditions associated with their distribution.

METHOD

Locations of all establishments holding VLT licences in Montréal and Laval (n = 834) were geocoded by their street address. Boroughs (n = 49) were characterized by socio-economic indicators (unemployment, educational attainment, lone parenthood), a neighbourhood distress index, and measures of VLT prevalence, VLT adoption and VLT density.

RESULTS

VLT prevalence, adoption and density were strongly correlated (p < 0.01) with lower borough socio-economic conditions. Although liquor establishments were also more likely to be located in poorer neighbourhoods, the adoption rate of VLT licences by bars in poorer neighbourhoods was systematically higher than in more affluent ones.

CONCLUSIONS

The spatial distribution of VLTs in Montréal and Laval closely reflects local geographies of socio-economic disadvantage. Any public health effort to reduce the burden of gambling-related health and social problems must recognize the spatial distortion of gambling opportunities in the urban environment.

Psychosocial variables associated with adolescent gambling

The authors empirically examined the relations between several psychosocial variables associated with adolescent problem gambling. Participants were 2,336 students in Grades 7-13, and all completed a questionnaire regarding gambling activities, gambling severity, perceived social support, drug and alcohol dependence, and various social, emotional, and behavioral problems. With respect to gambling severity, 4.9% of adolescents met the criteria for pathological gambling, and 8.0% were found to be at risk. Psychosocial difficulties associated with problem gambling include poor perceived familial and peer social support, substance use problems, conduct problems, family problems, and parental involvement in gambling and substance use. A set of predictor variables that may lead to problem gambling includes having family problems, having conduct problems, being addicted to drugs or alcohol, and being male.

The relationship of impulsivity, sensation seeking, coping, and substance use in youth gamblers

This study examines the relationship of impulsivity, sensation seeking, coping, and substance use to disordered gambling in a sample of 1,339 youth (637 males and 702 females), 17-21 years old. Results indicate that males with serious gambling problems were more likely than their peers to abuse substances and to use avoidant stress-coping strategies, such as seeking emotional outlets, distracting themselves with other activities, and using humor. In contrast, female disordered gamblers were less likely to engage in active coping and planning strategies. Overall, substance use, coping through distraction, and impulsivity proved the most predictive of disordered gambling for males, and intensity seeking and impulsivity proved most predictive for females. Implications for prevention, intervention, and education are discussed.

Adolescents with gambling problems: A synopsis of our current knowledge

It's been 25 years since Henry Lesieur's seminal research on understanding compulsive gambling was published. While still in its infancy, the field of gambling research has evolved and greatly added to a better understanding of this complex behavior, its measurement, its social and familial costs, ways of minimizing and preventing gambling problems, and methods of treating individuals with gambling problems. For most adolescents and adults gambling remains a form of entertainment without serious negative consequences. Yet, adolescent pathological gamblers, like their adult counterparts and independent of the negative consequences resulting from their excessive gambling, continue to chase their losses, exhibit a preoccupation with gambling, and have an impaired ability to stop gambling in spite of repeated attempts and their desire to do so. Our current empirical knowledge of youth gambling problems is reviewed and recommendations for future research are provided.

The social determinants of youth gambling in South Australian adolescents

Recent Australian studies (Moore, S.M., and Ohtsuka, K. (1997). Journal of Gambling Studies, 13, 207-236) have revealed a strong youth interest in gambling in Australia, as reflected in current participation levels, future intentions and attitudes. Implicit in much of this attitudinal research is that youth gambling is strongly influenced by the familial, social and cultural norms to which young people are exposed. In this paper, we investigate the hypothesis that gambling can be understood in terms of variations in economic socialization, namely, the way in which children learn about money, risk, and saving. A school survey of 505 adolescents (aged 15-17 years) showed that over 60% of adolescents were gambling annually and that 3.5% scored in the problematic range on the DSM-IV-J (Fisher, S.E. (1999). Addiction Research, 7, 509-538). More frequent gambling was associated with parental and peer gambling and pro-gambling attitudes, but unrelated to adolescents' attitudes towards economic concepts. Nevertheless, in partial support of the hypotheses, adolescents whose parents taught them about keeping to a budget, saving money, and maintaining their finances were less likely to express an interest in future gambling.

Impulsivity

Disorders characterized by impulsivity include disorders of impulse control (intermittent explosive disorder, pyromania, kleptomania, pathological gambling and trichotillomania), paraphilias, sexual impulsions and sexual addictions and impulsive aggression personality disorders (borderline, antisocial, histrionic and narcissistic personality disorders). Impulsivity has a substantial impact on both individuals and society. Impulse control disorders may be conceptualized as a subset of the obsessive-compulsive spectrum. In this article, we examine the genetic and neurobiological aetiology of these disorders and possible treatment options. The link between serotonergic dysfunction and the pathophysiology of impulsivity is discussed, and studies that examine the efficacy of various selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other alternatives in the treatment of impulsive disorders such as pathological gambling, sexual addictions and borderline personality disorder are presented.

Prevalence of problem gambling in adolescents: findings from the 1999 Ontario Student Drug Use Survey

OBJECTIVES

To describe the prevalence of gambling disorders in adolescent students in Ontario.

METHOD

Data were based on a random survey of 2371 Ontario students in grades 7 to 13 using the South Oaks Gambling Screen revised for adolescents (SOGS-RA).

RESULTS

In total, 5.8% of students met the criteria for past-year problem gambling, and an additional 7.5% met the criteria for at-risk gambling. Gambling disorders were significantly higher among male students than female, but did not differ significantly by age or region.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of gambling disorders among adolescents warrants thorough investigation and ongoing monitoring.

Gambling and other risk behaviors among 8th- to 12th-grade students

OBJECTIVE

To examine the associations between a self-reported history of gambling or problems related to gambling and health risk behaviors in adolescence.

DESIGN

An anonymous risk behavior survey was administered to 21 297 8th- through 12th-grade students in 79 public and private schools in Vermont. Gambling or problems related to gambling were the outcome variables of interest. Demographic variables and 13 target risk behaviors related to substance use, sexual activity, and violence were tested for association with gambling and problems related to gambling.

RESULTS

Of the students, 53% reported gambling in the past 12 months, and 7% reported problems attributable to gambling. Male gender, any use of alcohol, infrequent use of cigarette smoking, any marijuana use, any inhalant use, infrequent steroid use, frequent illegal drug use, seatbelt nonuse, driving after drinking alcohol, being threatened, carrying a weapon, being involved in a fight, and years of sexual activity were all significantly associated with reported gambling in the past 12 months. Among the students who gambled, younger age, male gender, daily marijuana use, frequent use of cocaine, frequent use of inhalants, any steroid use, never wearing seatbelts, carrying a weapon for up to 3 days a month, fighting, and years of sexual activity were all significantly associated with reported problems with family and friends as a consequence of gambling. There was an increase in the absolute number of risk behaviors reported between those who had not gambled, those who had gambled, and those for whom gambling had created problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Risk behaviors are associated with gambling in adolescence. The typology of risk behaviors was different for adolescents who reported gambling compared with those for whom gambling had created problems. Both gambling and problems related to gambling were significantly associated with the absolute number of risk behaviors reported by adolescents in a graded manner. Involvement in gambling should be assessed as part of the health encounter. Assessment may provide a nonthreatening entry into the evaluation of other risk behaviors. Furthermore, it may identify youth who are at risk of developing additional risk behaviors or pathological gambling. Interventions then could be targeted toward prevention of these undesirable outcomes.

Pathological gambling in Spanish children and adolescents: an emerging problem

Several studies have shown a high prevalence of pathological gamblers among adults in Spain (between 1.5% and 1.7%) of the population (18 years and older). In other countries the prevalence of pathological gambling in children and adolescents has been higher than in adults. Here some results of the first studies conducted in Spain concerning the prevalence of pathological gambling in school children and adolescents (11-16 years) are presented for two cities located in different northern regions of Spain, A Coruña (Galicia) and Gijon (Asturias), with representative samples of school children. The prevalence was 2.2% (n = 1,200) and 1.6% (n = 2,185), respectively, for the use of slot machines, using the 1993 DSM-IVJ Questionnaire of Fisher, and 2.4% in the first city with the South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised Adolescent for all types of gambling. The analyses suggest there is an emerging problem among children and adolescents in Spain perhaps leading to an increased number of pathological gamblers as adults.

Casino use by college students

College students' gambling behavior (N = 238) at the Foxwoods Resort Casino in Mashantucket, Connecticut was investigated using the South Oaks Gambling Screen. Of the 730 randomly sampled students, 238 returned usable questionnaires, a return rate of 32.5%. Only 35 (14.8%) of the students indicated having visited Foxwoods, of these, 26 (11% of the total) reported having gambled. Rates of problem were relatively low (6 students; 2.5%) and few underage students (3 students; 1.9%) reported using Foxwoods in the fall of 1994. As in other studies of casino gambling by students, slot machines and blackjack were the most frequent activities.