Nodes of Ranvier and Schmidt-Lanterman incisures: an in vivo lanthanum tracer study

Claudin-11 Tight Junctions in Myelin Are a Barrier to Diffusion and Lack Strong Adhesive Properties

The radial component is a network of interlamellar tight junctions (TJs) unique to central nervous system myelin. Ablation of claudin-11, a TJ protein, results in the absence of the radial component and compromises the passive electrical properties of myelin. Although TJs are known to regulate paracellular diffusion, this barrier function has not been directly demonstrated for the radial component, and some evidence suggests that the radial component may also mediate adhesion between myelin membranes. To investigate the physical properties of claudin-11 TJs, we compared fresh, unfixed Claudin 11-null and control nerves using x-ray and neutron diffraction. In Claudin 11-null tissue, we detected no changes in myelin structure, stability, or membrane interactions, which argues against the notion that myelin TJs exhibit significant adhesive properties. Moreover, our osmotic stressing and D2O-H2O exchange experiments demonstrate that myelin lacking claudin-11 is more permeable to water and small osmolytes. Thus, our data indicate that the radial component serves primarily as a diffusion barrier and elucidate the mechanism by which TJs govern myelin function.

KV1 channels identified in rodent myelinated axons, linked to Cx29 in innermost myelin: support for electrically active myelin in mammalian saltatory conduction

Saltatory conduction in mammalian myelinated axons was thought to be well understood before recent discoveries revealed unexpected subcellular distributions and molecular identities of the K(+)-conductance pathways that provide for rapid axonal repolarization. In this study, we visualize, identify, localize, quantify, and ultrastructurally characterize axonal KV1.1/KV1.2 channels in sciatic nerves of rodents. With the use of light microscopic immunocytochemistry and freeze-fracture replica immunogold labeling electron microscopy, KV1.1/KV1.2 channels are localized to three anatomically and compositionally distinct domains in the internodal axolemmas of large myelinated axons, where they form densely packed "rosettes" of 9-nm intramembrane particles. These axolemmal KV1.1/KV1.2 rosettes are precisely aligned with and ultrastructurally coupled to connexin29 (Cx29) channels, also in matching rosettes, in the surrounding juxtaparanodal myelin collars and along the inner mesaxon. As >98% of transmembrane proteins large enough to represent ion channels in these specialized domains, ∼500,000 KV1.1/KV1.2 channels define the paired juxtaparanodal regions as exclusive membrane domains for the voltage-gated K(+)conductance that underlies rapid axonal repolarization in mammals. The 1:1 molecular linkage of KV1 channels to Cx29 channels in the apposed juxtaparanodal collars, plus their linkage to an additional 250,000-400,000 Cx29 channels along each inner mesaxon in every large-diameter myelinated axon examined, supports previously proposed K(+)conductance directly from juxtaparanodal axoplasm into juxtaparanodal myeloplasm in mammalian axons. With neither Cx29 protein nor myelin rosettes detectable in frog myelinated axons, these data showing axon-to-myelin linkage by abundant KV1/Cx29 channels in rodent axons support renewed consideration of an electrically active role for myelin in increasing both saltatory conduction velocity and maximum propagation frequency in mammalian myelinated axons.

Myelin organization in the nodal, paranodal, and juxtaparanodal regions revealed by scanning x-ray microdiffraction

X-ray diffraction has provided extensive information about the arrangement of lipids and proteins in multilamellar myelin. This information has been limited to the abundant inter-nodal regions of the sheath because these regions dominate the scattering when x-ray beams of 100 µm diameter or more are used. Here, we used a 1 µm beam, raster-scanned across a single nerve fiber, to obtain detailed information about the molecular architecture in the nodal, paranodal, and juxtaparanodal regions. Orientation of the lamellar membrane stacks and membrane periodicity varied spatially. In the juxtaparanode-internode, 198–202 Å-period membrane arrays oriented normal to the nerve fiber axis predominated, whereas in the paranode-node, 205–208 Å-period arrays oriented along the fiber direction predominated. In parts of the sheath distal to the node, multiple sets of lamellar reflections were observed at angles to one another, suggesting that the myelin multilayers are deformed at the Schmidt-Lanterman incisures. The calculated electron density of myelin in the different regions exhibited membrane bilayer profiles with varied electron densities at the polar head groups, likely due to different amounts of major myelin proteins (P0 glycoprotein and myelin basic protein). Scattering from the center of the nerve fibers, where the x-rays are incident en face (perpendicular) to the membrane planes, provided information about the lateral distribution of protein. By underscoring the heterogeneity of membrane packing, microdiffraction analysis suggests a powerful new strategy for understanding the underlying molecular foundation of a broad spectrum of myelinopathies dependent on local specializations of myelin structure in both the PNS and CNS.

Mechanisms of diabetic neuropathy: Schwann cells

As ensheathing and secretory cells, Schwann cells are a ubiquitous and vital component of the endoneurial microenvironment of peripheral nerves. The interdependence of axons and their ensheathing Schwann cells predisposes each to the impact of injury in the other. Further, the dependence of the blood-nerve interface on trophic support from Schwann cells during development, adulthood, and after injury suggests these glial cells promote the structural and functional integrity of nerve trunks. Here, the developmental origin, injury-induced changes, and mature myelinating and nonmyelinating phenotypes of Schwann cells are reviewed prior to a description of nerve fiber pathology and consideration of pathogenic mechanisms in human and experimental diabetic neuropathy. A fundamental role for aldose-reductase-containing Schwann cells in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy, as well as the interrelationship of pathogenic mechanisms, is indicated by the sensitivity of hyperglycemia-induced biochemical alterations, such as polyol pathway flux, formation of reactive oxygen species, generation of advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs) and deficient neurotrophic support, to blocking polyol pathway flux.

Molecular architecture of myelinated nerve fibers: leaky paranodal junctions and paranodal dysmyelination

Myelinated nerve fibers have evolved to optimize signal propagation. Each myelin segment is attached to the axon by the unique paranodal axoglial junction (PNJ), a highly complex structure that serves to define axonal ion channel domains and to direct nodal action currents through adjacent nodes. Surprisingly, this junction does not entirely seal the paranodal myelin sheath to the axon and thus does not entirely isolate the perinodal space from the internodal periaxonal space. Rather the paranode is penetrated by extracellular pathways between the myelin sheath and the axolemma for movement of molecules and the flow of current to and from the internodal axon. This review summarizes past and current studies demonstrating these pathways and considers what functional roles they subserve. In addition, modern genetic engineering methods permit modification of individual PNJ constituents, which provides an opportunity to define their specific functions. One component in particular, the transverse bands, plays a key role in maintaining the structure and function of the PNJ. Loss of transverse bands results not in frank demyelination but rather in subtle dysmyelination, which causes significant functional impairment. The consequences of such subtle defects in the PNJ are considered along with the relevance of these studies to human diseases of myelin.

Biology of Schwann cells

The fundamental roles of Schwann cells during peripheral nerve formation and regeneration have been recognized for more than 100 years, but the cellular and molecular mechanisms that integrate Schwann cell and axonal functions continue to be elucidated. Derived from the embryonic neural crest, Schwann cells differentiate into myelinating cells or bundle multiple unmyelinated axons into Remak fibers. Axons dictate which differentiation path Schwann cells follow, and recent studies have established that axonal neuregulin1 signaling via ErbB2/B3 receptors on Schwann cells is essential for Schwann cell myelination. Extracellular matrix production and interactions mediated by specific integrin and dystroglycan complexes are also critical requisites for Schwann cell-axon interactions. Myelination entails expansion and specialization of the Schwann cell plasma membrane over millimeter distances. Many of the myelin-specific proteins have been identified, and transgenic manipulation of myelin genes have provided novel insights into myelin protein function, including maintenance of axonal integrity and survival. Cellular events that facilitate myelination, including microtubule-based protein and mRNA targeting, and actin based locomotion, have also begun to be understood. Arguably, the most remarkable facet of Schwann cell biology, however, is their vigorous response to axonal damage. Degradation of myelin, dedifferentiation, division, production of axonotrophic factors, and remyelination all underpin the substantial regenerative capacity of the Schwann cells and peripheral nerves. Many of these properties are not shared by CNS fibers, which are myelinated by oligodendrocytes. Dissecting the molecular mechanisms responsible for the complex biology of Schwann cells continues to have practical benefits in identifying novel therapeutic targets not only for Schwann cell-specific diseases but other disorders in which axons degenerate.

F-actin distribution at nodes of Ranvier and Schmidt-Lanterman incisures in mammalian sciatic nerves

Very little is known about the function of the F-actin cytoskeleton in the regeneration and pathology of peripheral nerve fibers. The actin cytoskeleton has been associated with maintenance of tissue structure, transmission of traction and contraction forces, and an involvement in cell motility. Therefore, the state of the actin cytoskeleton strongly influences the mechanical properties of cells and intracellular transport therein. In this work, we analyze the distribution of F-actin at Schmidt-Lanterman Incisures (SLI) and nodes of Ranvier (NR) domains in normal, regenerating and pathologic Trembler J (TrJ/+) sciatic nerve fibers, of rats and mice. F-actin was quantified and it was found increased in TrJ/+, both in SLI and NR. However, SLI and NR of regenerating rat sciatic nerve did not show significant differences in F-actin, as compared with normal nerves. Cytochalasin-D and Latrunculin-A were used to disrupt the F-actin network in normal and regenerating rat sciatic nerve fibers. Both drugs disrupt F-actin, but in different ways. Cytochalasin-D did not disrupt Schwann cell (SC) F-actin at the NR. Latrunculin-A did not disrupt F-actin at the boundary region between SC and axon at the NR domain. We surmise that the rearrangement of F-actin in neurological disorders, as presented here, is an important feature of TrJ/+ pathology as a Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) model.

Paranodal permeability in "myelin mutants"

Fluorescent dextran tracers of varying sizes have been used to assess paranodal permeability in myelinated sciatic nerve fibers from control and three "myelin mutant" mice, Caspr-null, cst-null, and shaking. We demonstrate that in all of these the paranode is permeable to small tracers (3 kDa and 10 kDa), which penetrate most fibers, and to larger tracers (40 kDa and 70 kDa), which penetrate far fewer fibers and move shorter distances over longer periods of time. Despite gross diminution in transverse bands (TBs) in the Caspr-null and cst-null mice, the permeability of their paranodal junctions is equivalent to that in controls. Thus, deficiency of TBs in these mutants does not increase the permeability of their paranodal junctions to the dextrans we used, moving from the perinodal space through the paranode to the internodal periaxonal space. In addition, we show that the shaking mice, which have thinner myelin and shorter paranodes, show increased permeability to the same tracers despite the presence of TBs. We conclude that the extent of penetration of these tracers does not depend on the presence or absence of TBs but does depend on the length of the paranode and, in turn, on the length of "pathway 3," the helical extracellular pathway that passes through the paranode parallel to the lateral edge of the myelin sheath.

Comparing peripheral glial cell differentiation in Drosophila and vertebrates

In all complex organisms, the peripheral nerves ensure the portage of information from the periphery to central computing and back again. Axons are in part amazingly long and are accompanied by several different glial cell types. These peripheral glial cells ensure electrical conductance, most likely nature the long axon, and establish and maintain a barrier towards extracellular body fluids. Recent work has revealed a surprisingly similar organization of peripheral nerves of vertebrates and Drosophila. Thus, the genetic dissection of glial differentiation in Drosophila may also advance our understanding of basic principles underlying the development of peripheral nerves in vertebrates.

Tricellulin is expressed in autotypic tight junctions of peripheral myelinating Schwann cells

Autotypic tight junctions are formed by tight junction-like structures in three regions of myelinating Schwann cells, the paranodal loops, Schmidt-Lanterman incisures, and outer/inner mesaxons, and various tight junction molecules, including claudin-19 and junctional adhesion molecule (JAM)-C. Our findings demonstrate the identification and subcellular distribution of a novel tricellular tight junction protein, tricellulin (TRIC), in the autotypic tight junctions of mouse myelinating Schwann cells, compared with the autotypic adherens junction protein E-cadherin and the autotypic tight junction protein JAM-C, which are expressed in the paranodal loops, Schmidt-Lanterman incisures, and mesaxons. In real-time RT-PCR, the expression level of TRIC mRNA was about 10-fold higher in the sciatic nerve than in the spinal cord or cerebrum. In immunostaining, TRIC signals were completely restricted to the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and strongly concentrated at the paranodal loops, Schmidt-Lanterman incisures, and mesaxons of myelinating Schwann cells. In addition, TRIC was expressed in the thin region of the paranode and there was a gap between TRIC and the Na+ channel. Furthermore, TRIC was more distally located from the node than E-cadherin and was colocalized with JAM-C. It is possible that TRIC may be a component to maintain the integrity for PNS myelin function and morphology. This manuscript contains online supplemental material at http://www.jhc.org. Please visit this article online to view these materials.

Gap junctions couple astrocytes and oligodendrocytes

In vertebrates, a family of related proteins called connexins form gap junctions (GJs), which are intercellular channels. In the central nervous system (CNS), GJs couple oligodendrocytes and astrocytes (O/A junctions) and adjacent astrocytes (A/A junctions), but not adjacent oligodendrocytes, forming a "glial syncytium." Oligodendrocytes and astrocytes each express different connexins. Mutations of these connexin genes demonstrate that the proper functioning of myelin and oligodendrocytes requires the expression of these connexins. The physiological function of O/A and A/A junctions, however, remains to be illuminated.

Two distinct heterotypic channels mediate gap junction coupling between astrocyte and oligodendrocyte connexins

Genetic diseases demonstrate that the normal function of CNS myelin depends on connexin32 (Cx32) and Cx47, gap junction (GJ) proteins expressed by oligodendrocytes. GJs couple oligodendrocytes and astrocytes (O/A channels) as well as astrocytes themselves (A/A channels). Because astrocytes express different connexins (Cx30 and Cx43), O/A channels must be heterotypic, whereas A/A channels may be homotypic or heterotypic. Using electrophysiological and immunocytochemical approaches, we found that Cx47/Cx43 and Cx32/Cx30 efficiently formed functional channels, but other potential heterotypic O/A and A/A pairs did not. These results suggest that Cx30/Cx30 and Cx43/Cx43 channels mediate A/A coupling, and Cx47/Cx43 and Cx32/Cx30 channels mediate O/A coupling. Furthermore, Cx47/Cx43 and Cx32/Cx30 channels have distinct macroscopic and single-channel properties and different dye permeabilities. Finally, Cx47 mutants that cause Pelizaeus-Merzbacher-like disease do not efficiently form functional channels with Cx43, indicating that disrupted Cx47/Cx43 channels cause this disease.

Recent progress on the molecular organization of myelinated axons

The structure of myelinated axons was well described 100 years ago by Ramón y Cajal, and now their molecular organization is being revealed. The basal lamina of myelinating Schwann cells contains laminin-2, and their abaxonal/outer membrane contains two laminin-2 receptors, alpha6beta4 integrin and dystroglycan. Dystroglycan binds utrophin, a short dystrophin isoform (Dp116), and dystroglycan-related protein 2 (DRP2), all of which are part of a macromolecular complex. Utrophin is linked to the actin cytoskeleton, and DRP2 binds to periaxin, a PDZ domain protein associated with the cell membrane. Non-compact myelin--found at incisures and paranodes--contains adherens junctions, tight junctions, and gap junctions. Nodal microvilli contain F-actin, ERM proteins, and cell adhesion molecules that may govern the clustering of voltage-gated Na+ channels in the nodal axolemma. Na(v)1.6 is the predominant voltage-gated Na+ channel in mature nerves, and is linked to the spectrin cytoskeleton by ankyrinG. The paranodal glial loops contain neurofascin 155, which likely interacts with heterodimers composed of contactin and Caspr/paranodin to form septate-like junctions. The juxtaparanodal axonal membrane contains the potassium channels Kv1.1 and Kv1.2, their associated beta2 subunit, as well as Caspr2. Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Caspr2 all have PDZ binding sites and likely interact with the same PDZ binding protein. Like Caspr, Caspr2 has a band 4.1 binding domain, and both Caspr and Caspr2 probably bind to the band 4.1 B isoform that is specifically found associated with the paranodal and juxtaparanodal axolemma. When the paranode is disrupted by mutations (in cgt-, contactin-, and Caspr-null mice), the localization of these paranodal and juxtaparanodal proteins is altered: Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Caspr2 are juxtaposed to the nodal axolemma, and this reorganization is associated with altered conduction of myelinated fibers. Understanding how axon-Schwann interactions create the molecular architecture of myelinated axons is fundamental and almost certainly involved in the pathogenesis of peripheral neuropathies.

Drainage of molecules from subarachnoid space to spinal nerve roots and peripheral nerve of the rat. A study based on Evans blue-albumin and lanthanum as tracers

The purpose of the present investigation was to find out if a compound injected into the spinal subarachnoid space, after having entered ventral and dorsal nerve roots, can be traced to the epineurial-perineurial sheaths and the endoneurium of peripheral nerves. This would indicate a centrifugal movement of substances from the cerebrospinal fluid along nerves; one route of drainage of cerebrospinal fluid which in the past has been widely discussed. In vivo studies were made using Evans blue-albumin and lanthanum chloride as tracers. Evans blue-albumin is macromolecular in size and emits a red fluorescence after exposure to ultraviolet light. Lanthanum ions are small and easily visible in the electron microscope. The tracers were injected into the cervical subarachnoid space and 15 min to 24 h later samples from roots, dorsal root ganglia, proximal part of spinal nerves and the median nerves were taken and further processed for detection of tracers. Fluorescence microscopy from samples removed 15 min and 24 h after the injection of Evans blue-albumin showed a red fluorescence of low intensity in the endoneurium of nerve roots, ganglia and proximal spinal nerve. After 24 h also the median nerve elicited some fluorescence. The sheaths around these structures were also fluorescent. Lanthanum was detected between cell layers of the nerve root sheath as well as inside the nerve root parenchyma. In about 50% of the samples from dorsal root ganglia extracellular lanthanum was found in the capsule. The tracer was also found in the epineurium of 50% of the spinal nerves and occasionally in the perineurium.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Repair of outer blood-retinal barrier after severe ocular blunt trauma in rabbits

Retinal contusion is a leading cause of visual loss in ocular blunt trauma. However, its pathogenesis remains controversial. We established a rabbit model of severe retinal contusion with energy of about 2.87 J. Typical retinal edema and sometimes subretinal hemorrhage reproducibly occurred at the posterior pole after injury. These subsided 1 week later with depigmentation in the lesion. Histopathological examination revealed severe damage of the outer layer of retina, for example, disruption of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptors. Electroretinography showed a decrease in the b wave by 38-47% in amplitudes (P < 0.01) during the first 3 days and then returned, although not to normal level. To investigate the damage and repair of blood-retinal barrier (BRB), 5 ml 2% lanthanum solution (La) was injected via the common carotid artery 1-2 min before enucleation. La diffused in the interphotoreceptor space through the damaged junctions of RPE 1 h-3 days after injury. La also reached the nuclei level of photoreceptors up to 14 days after injury. Although a glial scar with scattered RPE cells attached to Bruch's membrane in the severely damage area, no La diffusion was found in the retina 4 weeks after trauma. These results showed incomplete repair of outer BRB after severe blunt trauma.

Cryo-electron microscopy of nervous tissue. A review

The present work attempts to demonstrate that cryofixation is a valuable method for the study of the nervous tissue. The use of the newly developed methods of cryofixation and freeze-etching without fixatives or cryoprotectants allows new exciting perspectives for the electron microscopical observation of cellular components, emphasizing their three-dimensional morphological structures. Significant contributions have been made on the fine structure of the cytoskeleton, cell membranes and cell organelles. The components of the cytoskeleton are distributed in different composition through the perikarya, dendrites and axon. The ubiquitous presence of the cytoskeleton suggests a crucial role in the functional activities of the neurons, especially in relation to the intracellular communication and to developmental and regeneration processes. Vitrified cellular membranes of myelin sheaths and rod outer segments have been observed in hydrated state by using cryofixation and cryotransfer techniques. These procedures allow new insights into the supramolecular structure and an approximation of morphological data to the present biophysical membrane model including a critical comparison with the current descriptions gained by conventional electron microscopy.

Potassium channel-dependent changes in the volume of developing mouse Schwann cells

Physiological roles of voltage-gated K+ channels in developing mouse Schwann cells were investigated using whole-cell variation of the patch-clamp technique. In neonatal myelin-associated Schwann cells, local cytoplasmic swellings were induced when membrane potential (MP) was kept more negative than zero-current potential (membrane hyperpolarization) and they decreased in sizes when MP was kept positive. A lack of changes of cytoplasmic volume in Schwann cells of 17- to 18-day-old embryos or in neonatal myelin-associated cells in a solution containing Ba2+ suggested that activation of Ba(2+)-sensitive K+ channels caused cytoplasmic volume changes. Significant increase in magnitudes of Ba(2+)-sensitive K+ currents in neonatal myelin-associated cells after membrane hyperpolarization suggested that these K+ channels locate in adaxonal Schwann cell membrane and probably determine the sites of Schmidt-Lanterman incisures.

A distributed-parameter model of the myelinated nerve fiber

This paper presents a new model for the characterization of electrical activity in the nodal, paranodal and internodal regions of isolated amphibian and mammalian myelinated nerve fibers. It differs from previous models in the following ways: (1) in its ability to incorporate detailed anatomical and electrophysiological data; (2) in its approach to the myelinated nerve fiber as a multi-axial cable; and (3) in the numerical algorithm used to obtain distributed model equation solutions for potential and current. The morphometric properties are taken from detailed electron microscopic anatomical studies (Berthold & Rydmark, 1983a, Experientia 39, 964-976). The internodal axolemma is characterized as an excitable membrane and model-generated nodal and internodal membrane action potentials are presented. A system of describing equations for the equivalent network model is derived, based on the application of Kirchoff's Current Law, which take the form of multiple cross-coupled parabolic partial differential equations. An implicit numerical integration method is developed and the numerical solution implemented on a parallel processor. Non-uniform spatial step sizes are used, enabling detailed representation of the nodal region while minimizing the number of total segments necessary to represent the overall fiber. Conduction velocities of 20.2 m sec-1 at 20 degrees C for a 15 microns diameter amphibian fiber and 57.6 m sec-1 at 37 degrees C for a 17.5 microns diameter mammalian fiber are achieved, which agrees qualitatively with published experimental data at similar temperatures (Huxley & Stämpfli, 1949, J. Physiol., Lond. 108, 315-339; Rasminsky, 1973, Arch, Neurol. 28, 287-292). The simulation results demonstrate the ability of this model to produce detailed representations of the transaxonal, transmyelin and transfiber potentials and currents, as well as the longitudinal extra-axonal, periaxonal and intra-axonal currents. Also indicated is the potential contribution of the paranodal axolemma to nodal activity as well as the presence of significant longitudinal currents in the periaxonal space adjacent to the node of Ranvier.

Functions and distribution of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels in mammalian Schwann cells

Recent patch-clamp studies on freshly isolated mammalian Schwann cells suggest that voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels, first demonstrated in cells under culture conditions, are present in vivo. The expression of these channels, at least at the cell body region, appears to be dependent on the myelinogenic and proliferative states of the Schwann cell. Specifically, myelin elaboration is accompanied by a down regulation of functional potassium channel density at the cell body. One possibility to account for this is a progressive regionalization of ion channels on a Schwann cell during myelin formation. In adult myelinating Schwann cells, voltage-gated potassium channels appear to be localized at the paranodal region. Theoretical calculations have been made of activity-dependent potassium accumulations in various compartments of a mature myelinated nerve fibre; the largest potassium accumulation occurs not at the nodal gap but rather at the adjacent 2-4 microns length of periaxonal space at the paranodal junction. Schwann cell potassium channels at the paranode may contribute to ionic regulation during nerve activities.

Voltage-sensitive Na+ channels in mammalian peripheral nerves detected using scorpion toxins

The localization of voltage-sensitive sodium channels was investigated in mouse, rat and rabbit sciatic nerves using iodinated alpha- and beta-Scorpion toxins (ScTx) as specific probes. Saturable specific binding for a beta-ScTx was detected in mouse sciatic nerve homogenates (Kd = 90 pM, binding site capacity = 90 fmol mg-1 protein). LM autoradiographic studies demonstrated that the two types of ScTx stained the Ranvier nodes of the myelinated fibres, and also showed a clear but weaker labelling of the unmyelinated Remak bundles. In the sciatic nerve, which is widely considered as a model 'myelinated nerve', the nodal membrane represented only a small fraction of the total axonal membranes (0.2% and 0.05% for mouse and rabbit sciatic nerves respectively). Therefore, despite their high channel density, nodal membranes contribute only a small proportion of the total labelling by beta-ScTx (15% and 2.3% for mouse and rabbit sciatic nerves respectively), with the major contribution to labelling arising from unmyelinated axons. The distribution of specific binding sites for a beta-Scorpion toxin was then analysed in cross-sections of rabbit sciatic nerve at the EM level. The quantitative analysis of autoradiograms involved three methods, the 50% probability circle method, and two cross-fire analyses using either systematically distributed hypothetical sources or hypothetical sources only located on the plasma membranes of axons and of Schwann cells associated with unmyelinated Remak bundles. No specific beta-Scorpion toxin binding sites were detected at the plasma membrane of Schwann cells from either myelinated fibres or unmyelinated bundles, or at the internodal surface of myelinated axons. Sites were only detected at the surface of unmyelinated axons and at nodal axolemma. Their density in unmyelinated axons was found to be in the range of 1-6 per micron2 of plasma membrane surface area by combining quantitative EM autoradiography and stereological measurements.

Vascular permeability of spinal nerve roots. A study in the rat with Evans blue and lanthanum as tracers

The permeability of blood vessels in rat spinal nerve roots was investigated with Evans blue-albumin as an in vivo macromolecular tracer and lanthanum nitrate as an electron microscopic ionic marker added to a fixative. Rats injected intravenously with Evans blue, showed macroscopic distinct staining of dorsal root ganglia, whereas spinal nerve roots remained unstained. Fluorescence microscopy, however, revealed clear extravascular fluorescence both in ventral and dorsal roots 2 or 18 h after tracer administration. Two different types of blood vessels exists in spinal nerve roots; large extrinsic (radicular) in the root sheath and minute intrinsic vessels in the parenchyma. Lanthanum added to a fixative, perfused through the vessels was detected in the lumen of both types of vessels, usually adhering to the luminal plasma membrane and in many invaginations from that membrane. Lanthanum also entered the clefts between endothelial cells but was always stopped at the junctions which are, thus, of the tight type. Diffuse penetration of the compound into the cytoplasm was seen in one endothelial cell, but no fenestrations were detected. Junctions between the endothelial cells of vessels in rat spinal nerve roots are impermeable to lanthanum and most likely also to other large molecular substances like albumin. Thus, probable routes for serum albumin to enter the nerve roots, where it normally is present, must be either by centripetal extracellular diffusion from the ganglia and the peripheral nerve or by vascular leakage in the roots, caused by for instance pinocytosis across endothelial cells.

Effects of p-chlorophenylalanine on microvascular permeability changes in spinal cord trauma. An experimental study in the rat using 131I-sodium and lanthanum tracers

The possibility that serotonin can take part in the initiation of the increased microvascular permeability occurring in a spinal cord trauma was investigated in a rat model with 131I-sodium and lanthanum as tracers. We influenced the serotonin content in the tissue pharmacologically by treating animals with a serotonin synthesis inhibitor, p-chlorophenylalanine (p-CPA), before the production of the injury and compared the results with injured, untreated controls. A small incision was made in the dorsal horn of the lower thoracic cord. It caused a progressive extravasation of 131I-sodium in the damaged segment, measured after 1, 2 and 5 h. Rostral and caudal segments also showed a significant but lower accumulation of 131I-sodium. Lanthanum added to the fixative was used as an ionic tracer detectable by electron microscopy. The endothelial cells of microvessels removed from the perifocal region after 5 h showed a marked increase in the number of lanthanum-filled vesicles. Many endothelial cells had a diffuse penetration of the tracer into the cytoplasm and the basement membrane. However, the tight junctions usually remained closed to lanthanum. Pretreatment with p-CPA markedly reduced the extravasation of 131I-sodium measured at 5 h in the traumatized cord. At the cellular level, the endothelial vesicles filled with lanthanum approached the condition of uninjured animals. The diffuse infiltration of lanthanum into endothelial cells and its spread into the basement membrane of the vascular wall were usually absent. Our results indicate that serotonin plays a role in the initiation of the increased microvascular permeability which occurs in spinal cord injuries.

The intermediate dense line of the myelin sheath is preferentially accessible to cations and is stabilized by cations

Biophysical studies have shown that the narrow slit between the turns of the myelin leaflet includes a water space lined by strongly negative, fixed charges on the faces of the myelin leaflet. The accessibility of this slit to a marker should depend largely on the interaction between the marker charges and the surface charges on the myelin leaflet. This premise was explored in vitro by comparing the redistribution of anionic ferritin with highly cationized ferritin under a variety of experimental conditions. Cationized ferritin stained the basal lamina and penetrated it. It also bound to Schwann cell membranes, and it entered mesaxons and lodged between myelin lamellae. There was evidence of facilitated particle redistribution due to attractive forces between the cationized ferritin particles and the membrane surfaces. Anionic ferritin did not enter sheaths under identical experimental conditions. Additional experiments reconfirmed X-ray spectrographic data on a loosening of lamellar coherence upon elution of Ca2+ and recompaction of myelin by small amounts of Ca2+. If cationic ferritin was substituted for Ca2+ in these experiments, it also caused recompaction of myelin which had been loosened by previous Ca2+ elution. The cationic ferritin particles sandwiched between the recompacted myelin lamellae. These observations show that the slit between the turns of the myelin leaflet is preferentially accessible to cations, that cations can redistribute along it and that their presence is important for maintaining myelin periodicity. They also throw light on the significance of wide-spaced myelin in pathological conditions.

Diffusion barrier properties of the perineurium: an in vivo ionic lanthanum tracer study

While the perineurium as a diffusion barrier has been extensively investigated by light and electron microscopy, such studies have been largely restricted to the use of protein tracers. In the present study the permeability of the perineurium to a physiologically more relevant ionic tracer has been assessed. In vivo the rat sural or tibial nerve was either microinjected with lanthanum nitrate solution for endoneurial application or bathed in the lanthanum solution for epineurial application. The findings generally demonstrated an effective barrier to the tracer which failed to penetrate the inner layers of the perineurium. Only at the highest lanthanum concentration and longest time intervals employed did trace quantities occasionally penetrate the barrier and then only in the presence of some cytopathological changes to the outermost perineurial cells. The usefulness of the microinjection method was limited by the slight but unavoidable trauma to the perineurium. The findings are related to those of other studies which have used electron dense tracers, also to studies using physiological including electrophysiological techniques and morphological including freeze-fracture methods.

Filipin-sterol complexes at Schmidt-Lanterman incisures

Employing the freeze-fracture technique, the distribution of filipin-sterol complexes was determined for membranes of peripheral nerve myelin. A heterogeneous distribution of complexes was observed with the greatest abundance on membranes associated with the cytoplasmic channels of Schmidt-Lanterman and longitudinal incisures. In addition there was an irregular network of well-labelled membrane bands in compact myelin. The results are related to a possible role for these channels and bands in the biochemical turnover of cholesterol in myelin.

Filipin-sterol complexes at nodes of Ranvier

Using the filipin-sterol technique, regional heterogeneity in the axonal and Schwann cell plasma membranes was investigated at the node of Ranvier and paranodes. Filipin-sterol complexes were abundant at the nodal axolemma but infrequent throughout the paranodal axolemma. The paranodal Schwann cell plasma membrane was rich in complexes which extended over the nodal Schwann cell microvilli. There were no regional differences in filipin labelling of the nodal-paranodal Schwann cell plasma membrane in relation to features such as paranodal cytoplasmic columns or mesaxonal furrows. However, the paranodes of adjacent Schwann cells were sometimes markedly different from each other in the amount of filipin labelling. The extent to which filipin labelling is indicative of cholesterol membrane content is discussed and the findings are related to current concepts of distribution, mobility and interaction of protein and lipid in biomembranes, with particular reference to the nodal axolemma.

Distribution of filipin-sterol complexes in the myelinated nerve fiber

Using filipin as a cytochemical probe to reveal the distribution of cholesterol, myelinated peripheral nerve fibers were examined in freeze-fracture replicas. Filipin-sterol complexes were most abundant in the Schwann cell and axonal plasma membranes. In the Schwann cell plasma membrane there was no heterogeneity in complex distribution in relation to the subjacent cytoplasmic network. In myelin lamellae there was a decrease in complexes from outer to inner lamellae and some aggregation of complexes in individual lamellae. The density of complexes in cytoplasmic organelles varied from absent in mitochondria to high in lysosome-like bodies. The results are interpreted in terms of the related biochemical composition and biophysical properties of cell membranes, with particular reference to the myelinated nerve fiber. The influence of diffusion barriers and gradients on the formation of complexes by filipin is considered.