Ribbon synapses of the mammalian retina contain two types of synaptic bodies--ribbons and spheres

Circadian regulation in the retina: From molecules to network

The mammalian retina is the most unique tissue among those that display robust circadian/diurnal oscillations. The retina is not only a light sensing tissue that relays light information to the brain, it has its own circadian "system" independent from any influence from other circadian oscillators. While all retinal cells and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) possess circadian oscillators, these oscillators integrate by means of neural synapses, electrical coupling (gap junctions), and released neurochemicals (such as dopamine, melatonin, adenosine, and ATP), so the whole retina functions as an integrated circadian system. Dysregulation of retinal clocks not only causes retinal or ocular diseases, it also impacts the circadian rhythm of the whole body, as the light information transmitted from the retina entrains the brain clock that governs the body circadian rhythms. In this review, how circadian oscillations in various retinal cells are integrated, and how retinal diseases affect daily rhythms.

Strain differences in illumination-dependent structural changes at mouse photoreceptor ribbon synapses

Photoreceptor cells encode light signals over a wide range of intensities with graded changes in their membrane potential. At their highly specialized ribbon synapses they transmit the signals to the postsynaptic neurons by the tonic release of glutamate, which is continuously adjusted to changes in light intensity. Such a level of performance requires adaptive mechanisms, and it is suggested that illumination-dependent changes in ribbon shape and size are one of these adaptive processes. In this study we compared structural properties of synaptic ribbons under various illumination conditions between three mouse strains: the pigmented C57BL/6 and the two albino strains Balb/c and B6(Cg)-Tyr(c-2J) /J (coisogenic to C57BL/6). In addition, electroretinograms (ERGs) recorded in the same groups were compared. In the C57BL/6 mouse a change in illumination did not result in structural alterations of the synaptic ribbon. Similarly, in the B6(Cg)-Tyr(c-2J) /J mouse only minor structural changes were detected. In contrast, the state of adaptation had a large influence on the ribbon structure of the Balb/c mouse. The ERG recordings showed only small functional differences between C57BL/6 and B6(Cg)-Tyr(c-2J) /J mice, but the retinal function of Balb/c mice was strongly compromised. We conclude that illumination-dependent changes of photoreceptor ribbon structure differ between strains and thus cannot be regarded as a general mechanism for light adaptation.

WITHDRAWN: Ultrastructure of the human retina in aging and various pathological states

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Observations on the synaptic ribbon morphology in retinas of two human subjects at autopsy

Retinal photoreceptor and bipolar cell axon terminals possess synaptic ribbons (SR) that aid in the trafficking of synaptic vesicles at active zones. In rodents, besides SR, a number of other synaptic elements [e.g., synaptic spheres (SS)] are known to appear when exposed to altered ambient illumination. Here, we report changes of ribbon shape in photoreceptor and bipolar cell axon terminals in retinas of two persons at autopsy who suffered from brain hemorrhage. In both subjects, retinal hemorrhage was present in the outer and inner nuclear layers. SR were bent or swollen and transformed into SS. A count revealed that about 54-60% of the photoreceptor axon terminals over the nasal to temporal retina possessed SS. They were associated with synaptic triads or remained floating in cytoplasm. The bipolar cell axon terminals possessed either SR or sphere-like bodies. As these features were not seen in control retinas of donors who died of other causes, we assume that in hemorrhagic subjects, SR underwent transformation into SS, in which perhaps ischemia (caused due to vascular obstructions by hemorrhage) played a leading role.

Circadian regulation of ion channels and their functions

Ion channels are the gatekeepers to neuronal excitability. Retinal neurons of vertebrates and invertebrates, neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of vertebrates, and pinealocytes of non-mammalian vertebrates display daily rhythms in their activities. The interlocking transcription-translation feedback loops with specific post-translational modulations within individual cells form the molecular clock, the basic mechanism that maintains the autonomic approximately 24-h rhythm. The molecular clock regulates downstream output signaling pathways that further modulate activities of various ion channels. Ultimately, it is the circadian regulation of ion channel properties that govern excitability and behavior output of these neurons. In this review, we focus on the recent development of research in circadian neurobiology mainly from 1980 forward. We will emphasize the circadian regulation of various ion channels, including cGMP-gated cation channels, various voltage-gated calcium and potassium channels, Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, and a long-opening cation channel. The cellular mechanisms underlying the circadian regulation of these ion channels and their functions in various tissues and organisms will also be discussed. Despite the magnitude of chronobiological studies in recent years, the circadian regulation of ion channels still remains largely unexplored. Through more investigation and understanding of the circadian regulation of ion channels, the future development of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of sleep disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and other illnesses linked to circadian misalignment will benefit.

Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup

Charles Darwin appreciated the conceptual difficulty in accepting that an organ as wonderful as the vertebrate eye could have evolved through natural selection. He reasoned that if appropriate gradations could be found that were useful to the animal and were inherited, then the apparent difficulty would be overcome. Here, we review a wide range of findings that capture glimpses of the gradations that appear to have occurred during eye evolution, and provide a scenario for the unseen steps that have led to the emergence of the vertebrate eye.

Structure suggests function: the case for synaptic ribbons as exocytotic nanomachines

Synaptic ribbons, the organelles identified in electron micrographs of the sensory synapses involved in vision, hearing, and balance, have long been hypothesized to play an important role in regulating presynaptic function because they associate with synaptic vesicles at the active zone. Their physiology and molecular composition have, however, remained largely unknown. Recently, a series of elegant studies spurred by technical innovation have finally begun to shed light on the ultrastructure and function of ribbon synapses. Electrical capacitance measurements have provided sub-millisecond resolution of exocytosis, evanescent-wave microscopy has filmed the fusion of single 30 nm synaptic vesicles, electron tomography has revealed the 3D architecture of the synapse, and molecular cloning has begun to identify the proteins that make up ribbons. These results are consistent with the ribbon serving as a vesicle "conveyor belt" to resupply the active zone, and with the suggestion that ribbon and conventional chemical synapses have much in common.

Diurnal daylight phase affects the temporal properties of both the b-wave and d-wave of the human electroretinogram

Aspects of the anatomy and physiology of the cone pathway are known to vary according to the phase of the natural light cycle. Using a prolonged flash stimulus ( approximately 200 ms), we have examined the human electroretinogram (ERG) over a 24 h period. We report that whilst the a-wave of the photopic ERG does not alter, there are profound effects upon the implicit times of both the b-wave and d-wave components. Both components are significantly slower in the night-time period and systematically become faster (15-22% reduction in implicit time), reaching a peak at around midday. The daily variation in the temporal properties of the ERG is abolished by constant light, but is retained during constant darkness. The data suggest that the changes in the temporal properties of the cone pathway affect both cone-ON and cone-OFF pathways. This suggests that the diurnal effect is presynaptic to the second order neurones, and most likely resides in the cone synapse.

Long-term light history modulates the light response kinetics of luminosity (L)-type horizontal cells in the roach retina

We have examined the effects of prolonged periods of darkness on the responses of luminosity-type horizontal cells (L-HCs) in the freshwater cyprinid, Rutilus rutilus. Two groups of retinae were compared, those recorded after 10 min dark adaptation (SA) and those recorded after 3 h dark adaptation (LA). The results suggest that long-term light history does not modify the general responsiveness of the L-HCs in this species. However, there are apparent changes in the receptive field of the cells and modifications to the kinetics of the light-evoked response. The kinetics changes involve both a delay in the onset of light response and a selective effect on the hyperpolarizing light-ON response. Thus the mean time constant (tau) for the SA cells was 32.4+/-2.39 ms (n=62), whilst that for the LA cells was 53.4+/-3.03 ms (n=61). These effects occur in the absence of changes in the relative spectral sensitivity or threshold sensitivity of the HCs. The results suggest that in some vertebrate retinae, prolonged darkness (light-history) may regulate long-term plasticity in the kinetics of the cone-HC pathway.

A regional ultrastructural analysis of the cellular and synaptic architecture in the chinchilla cristae ampullares

The chinchilla crista ampullaris was studied in 10 samples, each containing 32 consecutive ultrathin sections of the entire neuroepithelium. Dissector methods were used to estimate the incidence of various synaptic features, and results were confirmed in completely reconstructed hair cells. There are large regional variations in cellular and synaptic architecture. Type I and type II hair cells are shorter, broader, and less densely packed in the central zone than in the intermediate and peripheral zones. Complex calyx endings are most common centrally. On average, there are 15-20 ribbon synapses and 25-30 calyceal invaginations in each type I hair cell. Synapses and invaginations are most numerous centrally. Central type II hair cells receive considerably fewer afferent boutons than do peripheral type II hair cells, but have similar numbers of ribbon synapses. The numbers are similar because central type II hair cells make more synapses with the outer faces of calyx endings and with individual afferent boutons. Most afferent boutons get one ribbon synapse. Boutons without ribbon synapses were only found peripherally, and boutons getting multiple synapses were most frequent centrally. Throughout the neuroepithelium, there is an average of three to four efferent boutons on each type II hair cell and calyx ending. Reciprocal synapses are rare. Most synaptic ribbons in type I hair cells are spherules; those in type II hair cells can be spherical or elongated and are particularly heterogeneous centrally. Consistent with the proposal that the crista is concentrically organized, the intermediate and peripheral zones are each similar in their cellular and synaptic architecture near the base and near the planum. An especially differentiated subzone may exist in the middle of the central zone.

Synaptic growth in the rod terminals of mice after partial photoreceptor cell loss: a three-dimensional ultrastructural study

Following partial loss of photoreceptor cells in the retina of mice afflicted by mutant genes, damaging light exposure, or old age, some of the remaining rod cells exhibited a process of growth in their synapses with the second order retinal neurons. This growth was recognized by the presence of multiple synaptic sites in some of the rod terminals in the outer plexiform layer. In this study, a comparative analysis of the microanatomical changes in the synaptic structures of the rod terminals in the retina of normal, rds homozygous and heterozygous mutant and light exposed albino mice was undertaken by using a computer-aided three-dimensional reconstruction. A rod terminal normally showed the presence of 1 synaptic complex consisting of a single synaptic ribbon located between 2 processes of horizontal cells and 2 bipolar cell dendrites. In a rod terminal showing an enlarged synaptic complex, 2 or 3 separate synaptic ribbons formed the centres of separate synaptic sites; each of the sites was characterized by the presence of 2 laterally placed horizontal cell processes and 2 bipolar cell dendrites. However, these processes from the multiple synaptic sites were observed to arise from the 2 horizontal and the 2 bipolar cell elements that were normally present in the rod terminal. Thus proliferation of synaptic sites in the rod terminals occurred through growth and sprouting from the processes of the second order neuronal components present within the terminals. The altered synaptic complexes in the variously affected groups were structurally comparable and appeared to have resulted from similar microanatomical changes. The increase in the frequency of rod terminals with multiple synaptic sites occurred as a sequel to increasing photoreceptor cell loss that was recorded at different age points in the different experimental groups. It is concluded that rod synapses in the adult mammalian retina possess structural plasticity that permits compensatory growth.

Plasticity of retinal ribbon synapses

Ribbon synapses differ from conventional chemical synapses in that they contain, within the cloud of synaptic vesicles (SV's), a specialized synaptic body, most often termed synaptic ribbon (SR). This body assumes various forms. Reconstructions reveal that what appear as rod- or ribbon-like profiles in sections are in fact rectangular or horseshoe-shaped plates. Moreover, spherical, T-shaped, table-shaped, and highly pleomorphic bodies may be present. In mammals, ribbon synapses are present in afferent synapses of photoreceptors, bipolar nerve cells, and hair cells of both the organ of Corti and the vestibular organ. Synaptic ribbons (SR's) are also found in the intrinsic cells of the third eye, the pineal gland, and in the lateral line system. The precise function of SR's is enigmatic. The prevailing concept is that SR's function as conveyor belts to channel SV's to the presynaptic membrane for neurotransmitter release by means of exocytosis. The present article reviews the evidence that speaks for a plasticity of these organelles in the retina and the third eye, as reflected in changes in number, size, shape, location, and grouping pattern. SR plasticity is especially pronounced in the mammalian and submammalian pineal gland and in cones and bipolar cells of teleost fishes. Here, SR number and size wax and wane according to the environmental lighting conditions. In the pineal SR numbers increase at night and decrease during the day. In teleost cones, SR's are in their prime during daytime and decrease or disappear at night, when transmitter release is enhanced. In addition to numerical changes, SR's may also exhibit changes in size, shape, grouping pattern, and location. In the mammalian retina of adults, in contrast to the developing retina, the reported signs of SR plasticity are subtle and not always consistent. They may reflect changes in function or may represent signs of degradation. To distinguish between the-two, more detailed studies under selected experimental conditions are required. Probably the strongest evidence for SR plasticity in the mammalian retina is that in hibernating squirrels SR's leave the synaptic site and accumulate in areas as far as 5 microns from the synapse. Changes in shape include the occurrence of club-shaped SR's and round SR's or synaptic spheres (SS's). SS's may represent a special type of synaptic body, yet belonging to the family of SR's, or may be related to the catabolism of SR's. SR number is regulated by Ca2+ in teleost cones, whereas in the mammalian pineal gland cGMP is involved. An interesting biochemical feature of ribbon synapses is that they lack synapsins. The presently reviewed results suggest to us that SR's do not primarily function as conveyor belts, but are devices to immobilize SV's in inactive ribbon synapses.

Fine structure of the afferent synapses in the paratympanic organ of the chicken, with special reference to the synaptic bodies

The afferent synapses of the paratympanic organ in the chicken were studied by TEM. These synapses were formed by non-myelinated fibres which reached the basal part of the hair cells. The fibres contained a number of irregular mitochondria and a few pale vesicles. In the hair cells, near the presynaptic membrane, typical synaptic bodies formed by an electron-dense core surrounded by several small pale vesicles were present. The core was connected with the vesicles by numerous thin filaments, and at same time with the presynaptic membrane by some dense projections. Moreover, we have observed that the connections between the core and the adjacent vesicles also consisted of similar structures to the dense projections. We suggest that this device is involved in the movement of the vesicles towards the presynaptic membrane. Our hypothesis is in agreement with that formulated by some authors who believe that the electron-dense core of the synaptic bodies is able to channel the vesicles to the presynaptic membrane (conveyor-belt hypothesis). Moreover, our work showed that the synaptic bodies of the paratympanic organ in the chicken are variable in density and in shape. These morphological aspects might be linked to regression-reconstitution cycles of the SBs and to the functional level of the afferent synapses.

Mammalian rod terminal: architecture of a binary synapse

The mammalian rod synapse transmits a binary signal (one photon or none) using tonic, rapid exocytosis. We constructed a quantitative, physical model of the synapse. Presynaptically, a single, linear active zone provides docking sites for approximately 130 vesicles, and a "ribbon" anchored to the active zone provides a depot for approximately 640 vesicles. Postsynaptically, 4 processes invaginate the terminal: 2 (known to have low affinity glutamate receptors) lie near the active zone (16 nm), and 2 (known to have high affinity glutamate receptors) lie at a distance (130-640 nm). The presynaptic structure seems designed to minimize fluctuations in tonic rate owing to empty docking sites, whereas the postsynaptic geometry may permit 1 vesicle to evoke an all-or-none response at all 4 postsynaptic processes.

Strain differences in the ratio of synaptic body types in photoreceptors of the rat retina

In the retinal outer plexiform layer of seven different rat strains, synaptic bodies (SB) were counted and, according to their morphology, characterized as synaptic ribbons (SR), synaptic spheres (SS) or intermediate structures. It was found that absolute SB numbers showed relatively small variations while SR/SS ratios differed considerably between the strains investigated. These results are discussed with respect to retinal pigmentation and to formation and degradation, respectively, of synaptic ribbons.

Comparison of immunolocalization patterns for the synaptic vesicle proteins p65 and synapsin I in macaque monkey retina

The distributions of the two synaptic vesicle proteins p65 [Matthew et al. (1981) J. Cell Biol., 91:257-269] and synapsin I [De Camilli et al. (1983) J. Cell Biol., 96:1337-1354] were compared in macaque monkey retina using pre-embedding immunocytochemistry for both light and electron microscopy. The monoclonal antibody AB-48 against p65 labeled ribbon-containing synaptic terminals of cone, rod, and bipolar cells as well as many conventional synapses of amacrine cells. In contrast, a polyclonal antiserum against synapsin I (SYN I) labeled many amacrine conventional synapses but no photoreceptor or bipolar ribbon synaptic terminals. Horizontal cell pre- and post-synaptic profiles in the outer plexiform layer were not labeled by either antibody. At the light microscopic level, the banding patterns in the inner plexiform layer also differed for the two antibodies, with four bands of AB-48 immunoreactivity in sublayers S1, S2, S4, and S5 but only three bands of SYN I immunoreactivity in S1, S3, and S5. SYN I also labeled varicose fibers in both the inner nuclear layer and the outer plexiform layer that are probably processes of dopaminergic and GABAergic interplexiform cells. Varicose fibers in the ganglion cell layer were labeled by both antibodies. These results provide the first electron microscopic immunocytochemical labeling for AB-48 and SYN I in intact retina and confirm that AB-48 labels both ribbon and conventional synaptic terminals, whereas SYN I labels only conventional synapses.

Changing the light intensity of the visual environment results in large differences in numbers of synapses and in photoreceptor size in the retina of the young adult rat

A quantitative light- and electron-microscopic study has been made of the retinae of rats which were exposed to different lighting conditions for between one and 15 weeks in young adulthood, having been reared in identical conditions during development. The width of the inner and outer segments of the photoreceptors and the width of the outer plexiform layer varied inversely with the light intensity under diurnal lighting conditions of 10 h light/14 h dark. Linear regression analysis showed that the widths were inversely related to the fourth root of the light intensity as measured in lux. Both central and peripheral areas of retina showed a similar change. No change was seen in the widths of the inner plexiform layer, or of the inner and outer nuclear cell layers. Nor was there a difference in the packing density or size of the nuclei in the nuclear cell layers. The number of ribbon synapses in the outer plexiform layer also varied inversely with the intensity of diurnal light. Linear regression analysis showed that the number of synapses was inversely correlated with the fourth root of the light intensity and was positively correlated with the width of the outer plexiform layer. The number of ribbon synapses was increased by up to two and a half times in constant darkness compared to diurnal light of 35 lux. The increase was present but not maximal after one week of exposure. The length of synaptic ribbons was unchanged. The nerve terminals forming such synapses were increased in size but not in number. After one week, there was little or no additional change in the retinal widths and number of synaptic ribbons with time. However, there was a progressive increase with time in nerve terminal size (two-fold in area) in constant darkness. There was some evidence of a slight decrease in nerve terminal number and increase in size of retinal nuclei with age. It is concluded that the adult retina responds to a different lighting environment by a relatively rapid change in the size of photoreceptor segments, by a progressive and large change in number of ribbon synapses and by a slower progressive and large change in the size of photoreceptor nerve terminals. The response is quantitatively determined by the strength of the stimulus but not in a linear fashion. These results are compared with the effects of environmental stimulation of other areas of the nervous system.

Synaptic ribbons, spheres and intermediate structures in the developing rat retina

The present study was conducted to investigate the qualitative and quantitative development of synaptic bodies in retinae of Wistar rats during postnatal days 4-28. In addition, the effects of different light regimens and of eye pigmentation on SB numbers were studied. Synaptic bodies were counted and measured in the outer plexiform layer of retinal tissue fixed and processed by routine electron microscopical techniques. At postnatal days 4 and 5, retinae showed only few synaptic bodies. The main numerical development of synaptic bodies occurred between postnatal days 4 and 9, numbers remaining more or less constant thereafter. The intracellular location of synaptic ribbons changed from predominantly cytoplasmic sites to positions at the membrane. In Wistar rats of postnatal day 15 held under a light/dark regimen, synaptic ribbon numbers and lengths were found to be significantly larger at night than at daytime. This was not observed in animals kept under constant darkness. In retinae of a pigmented rat strain, Brown Norway, total numbers of synaptic bodies were similar to those of Wistar rats, whereas the relative proportions of synaptic ribbons and spheres or sphere-like structures, respectively, differed between strains. These results are discussed with regard to synaptic body formation and regulation under the influence of light and eye pigmentation.

The ultrastructure of neuronal-pinealocytic interconnections in the monkey pineal

Recent ultrastructural studies of neuronal-pinealocytic interconnections in the monkey pineal are reviewed. The pinealocytes in the adult monkey show almost all of the cytological specializations known in subprimate mammals. Adjacent pinealocytes are functionally coupled through ribbon synapses on cell bodies and gap junctions on cell bodies and cell processes. The pinealocytes receive direct synpatic contacts of nerve fibers with cholinergic terminal morphology. Nerve cells restricted to the central portion of the pineal receive synaptic contacts with more than three different morphologically defined types of nerve terminals. In addition to nerve terminals containing small clear vesicles or vesicles of pleomorphic morphology, a pinealocyte's terminal process containing the synaptic ribbon forms a true synaptic contact on the nerve cell body. The diversity of synapses on these nerve cells strongly suggests multiple origins of these neurons rather than a single peripheral parasympathetic origin. The possible involvement of pineal neurons in an intrinsic circuit that regulates the function of pinealocytes and integrates the neural input from the central as well as the peripheral nervous systems is discussed.

Synaptic plasticity in the rod terminals after partial photoreceptor cell loss in the heterozygous rds mutant mouse

In the retina of mice heterozygous for the retinal degeneration slow gene (rds/+) the photoreceptor cells, both rods and cones, develop abnormal outer segments but establish normal synaptic contacts. The other retinal layers also show normal structural organization. Starting from the age of 2 months, a very slow loss of photoreceptor cells progresses throughout life. As a result, the photoreceptor cell population in the retina of the affected mice is reduced to less than half at the age of 9-18 months. In some of the surviving rod terminals during this period, an increase in the number of synaptic ribbons is recorded. At the same time, the profiles of processes originating from the second order neurons and participating in these synapses are also increased in number so that the multiple ribbons appear as centres of multiple synaptic sites. Morphometric measurements of the perimeter of the synaptic profiles in rod terminals show a significant increase in the rds/+ retina over that of the control retina. Observations based on serial electron microscopy indicate that multiple synaptic sites are developed while the number of the second order neuronal processes, entering the terminals, remains unchanged. The frequency of terminals with multiple synapses in the rds/+ retina increases with progressive photoreceptor cell loss. Similar changes do not occur in the terminals of the cones. It is postulated that loss of some rod photoreceptor cells within a group that is presynaptic to common bipolars or horizontal cells results in partial deafferentation which in turn stimulates the growth of the remaining synaptic elements. The possible compensatory effect and functional significance of such synaptic growth are discussed.

Invagination of presynaptic ribbons in the fly's optic lobe following loss of their target neuron

In the first optic neuropile of the housefly Musca, photoreceptor terminals innervate fixed clusters of interneurons, one of which is the monopolar cell L2; L2's synapses in turn feed back upon the terminals. We examined the ultrastructure of these feedback synapses following degeneration of their normal targets, the receptor terminals; this was accomplished by photo-ablating the receptor cells after intraretinal injections of sulforhodamine. Even when all the terminals degenerated, their deafferentated target cells, including L2, remained structurally intact for at least 14 d. Despite this lack of obvious trans-synaptic degeneration, L2's synaptic connections did alter. Presynaptic organelles of the feedback synapses, synaptic ribbons and associated synaptic vesicles, soon appeared in L2's cytoplasm, separating from their site of attachment at the presynaptic membrane by invagination. Similar free-floating organelles and vesicles also occurred in another monopolar cell, L4. They were also occasionally encountered in L2, in normal, newly emerged flies at a time when a naturally occurring loss of feedback synapses is greatest. We interpret the process of internalization that forms these floating ribbons to be the first step in synaptic loss which occurs spontaneously, and that the rate is enhanced in L2 when its main synaptic targets, the receptor terminals, degenerate.