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Stephenson L, Van Den Heuvel C, Scott T, Byard RW. Difficulties associated with the interpretation of postmortem toxicology. J Anal Toxicol 2024; 48:405-412. [PMID: 38850225 PMCID: PMC11245884 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkae052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024] Open
Abstract
While postmortem (PM) toxicology results provide valuable information towards ascertaining both the cause and manner of death in coronial cases, there are also significant difficulties associated with the interpretation of PM drug levels. Such difficulties are influenced by several pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic factors including PM redistribution, diffusion, site-to-site variability in drug levels, different drug properties and metabolism, bacterial activity, genetic polymorphisms, tolerance, resuscitation efforts, underlying conditions, and the toxicity profile of cases (i.e. single- or mixed-drug toxicity). A large body of research has been dedicated for better understanding and even quantifying the influence of these factors on PM drug levels. For example, several investigative matrices have been developed as potential indicators of PM redistribution, but they have limited practical value. Reference tables of clinically relevant therapeutic, toxic, and potentially fatal drug concentrations have also been compiled, but these unfortunately do not provide reliable reference values for PM toxicology. More recent research has focused on developing databases of peripheral PM drug levels for a variety of case-types to increase transferability to real-life cases and improve interpretations. Changes to drug levels after death are inevitable and unavoidable. As such, guidelines and practices will continue to evolve as we further our understanding of such phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilli Stephenson
- School of Biomedicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | | | - Timothy Scott
- Forensic Science SA (FSSA), Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Roger W Byard
- School of Biomedicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
- Forensic Science SA (FSSA), Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
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2
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Noufal Y, Kringel D, Toennes SW, Dudziak R, Lötsch J. Pharmacological data science perspective on fatal incidents of morphine treatment. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 241:108312. [PMID: 36423714 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Morphine prescribed for analgesia has caused drug-related deaths at an estimated incidence of 0.3% to 4%. Morphine has pharmacological properties that make it particularly difficult to assess the causality of morphine administration with a patient's death, such as its slow transfer between plasma and central nervous sites of action and the existence of the active metabolite morphine-6-glucuronide with opioid agonistic effects, Furthermore, there is no well-defined toxic dose or plasma/blood concentration for morphine. Dosing is often adjusted for adequate pain relief. Here, we summarize reported deaths associated with morphine therapy, including associated morphine exposure and modulating patient factors such as pharmacogenetics, concomitant medications, or comorbidities. In addition, we systematically analyzed published numerical information on the stability of concentrations of morphine and its relevant metabolites in biological samples collected postmortem. A medicolegal case is presented in which the causality of morphine administration with death was in dispute and pharmacokinetic modeling was applied to infer the administered dose. The results of this analytical review suggest that (i) inference from postmortem blood concentrations to the morphine dose administered has low validity and (ii) causality between a patient's death and the morphine dose administered remains a highly context-dependent and collaborative assessment among experts from different medical specialties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yazan Noufal
- Goethe-University, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Dario Kringel
- Goethe-University, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Goethe-University, University Hospital Frankfurt, Institute of Legal Medicine, Kennedyallee 104, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Rafael Dudziak
- Goethe-University, University Hospital Frankfurt, Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jörn Lötsch
- Goethe-University, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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3
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Kronstrand R, Åstrand A, Watanabe S, Gréen H, Vikingsson S. Circumstances, Postmortem Findings, Blood Concentrations and Metabolism in a Series of Methoxyacetylfentanyl Related Deaths. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:760-771. [PMID: 34009362 PMCID: PMC8446433 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Methoxyacetylfentanyl is one of many fentanyl analogs available as new psychoactive substances. It have been encountered in both the European Union and the United States, and existing literature suggest that methoxyacetylfentanyl is around 3 to 5-fold less potent than fentanyl. The aim of the present work was to combine case information with blood concentrations and abundance of urinary metabolites to investigate the importance of these parameters for toxicological interpretation. Quantification of methoxyacetylfentanyl in femoral blood was performed by LC-MS/MS and urinary metabolites were analyzed by LC-QTOF-MS with and without hydrolysis with β-glucuronidase/arylsulfatase. For confirmation of identified metabolites, methoxyacetylfentanyl was incubated with hepatocytes for up to 5 hours and analyzed with the same method as the urine samples. In eleven postmortem cases (27 to 41 years old and including one female) methoxyacetylfentanyl was reported in femoral blood. The cause of death was intoxication by methoxyacetylfentanyl alone or in combination with other drugs in all but one case, where death was attributed to acute complications of an underlying heart disease but with possible contribution from methoxyacetylfentanyl. In total, 27 urinary metabolites were found, including eight glucuronides. Major biotransformations were O-demethylation, dealkylation to form the nor-metabolite, mono- and dihydroxylations of the phenethyl moiety, as well as combinations thereof. The most abundant metabolites in hydrolyzed urine included O-desmethyl-, O-desmethyl-phenethyl-hydroxy-, O-desmethyl-phenethyl-hydroxymethoxy- and nor-methoxyacetylfentanyl.Differences in the abundance of methoxyacetylfentanyl and its major metabolites could be interpreted to indicate fatal intoxications in abstinent or chronic users. We postulate that urinary concentrations of methoxyacetylfentanyl and two metabolites, in combination with the methoxyacetylfentanyl concentration in femoral blood, might be good indicators of the time between administration and death as well as prior use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Kronstrand
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health and Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden.,Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Anna Åstrand
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health and Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden.,Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Shimpei Watanabe
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health and Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden.,Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health and Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden.,Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health and Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden.,Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden.,RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, USA
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4
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Maskell PD, Wilson NE, Seetohul LN, Crichton ML, Beer LJ, Drummond G, De Paoli G. Postmortem tissue distribution of morphine and its metabolites in a series of heroin-related deaths. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:292-304. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter D. Maskell
- School of Science, Engineering and Technology; Abertay University; Dundee DD11HG UK
| | | | - L. Nitin Seetohul
- School of Science and Technology; Nottingham Trent University; Nottingham UK
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Thaulow CH, Øiestad ÅML, Rogde S, Andersen JM, Høiseth G, Handal M, Mørland J, Vindenes V. Can measurements of heroin metabolites in post-mortem matrices other than peripheral blood indicate if death was rapid or delayed? Forensic Sci Int 2018; 290:121-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.06.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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6
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Thaulow CH, Øiestad ÅML, Rogde S, Karinen R, Brochmann GW, Andersen JM, Høiseth G, Handal M, Mørland J, Arnestad M, Øiestad EL, Strand DH, Vindenes V. Metabolites of Heroin in Several Different Post-mortem Matrices. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:311-320. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Cecilie Hasselø Thaulow
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Åse Marit Leere Øiestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sidsel Rogde
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Pathology and Clinical Forensic Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, PO Box 1171 Blindern, N-0318 OSLO, Norway
| | - Ritva Karinen
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Gerd Wenche Brochmann
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jannike Mørch Andersen
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Gudrun Høiseth
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Marte Handal
- Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404 Nydalen, N-0403 OSLO, Norway
| | - Jørg Mørland
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404 Nydalen, N-0403 OSLO, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, PO Box 1171 Blindern, N-0318 OSLO, Norway
| | - Marianne Arnestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Dag Helge Strand
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Vigdis Vindenes
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Forensic Toxicology, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, PO Box 1171 Blindern, N-0318 OSLO, Norway
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7
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Lemaire E, Schmidt C, Dubois N, Denooz R, Charlier C, Boxho P. Site-, Technique-, and Time-Related Aspects of the Postmortem Redistribution of Diazepam, Methadone, Morphine, and their Metabolites: Interest of Popliteal Vein Blood Sampling. J Forensic Sci 2017; 62:1559-1574. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 11/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Lemaire
- Department of Pathology; University Hospital - CHU Sart Tilman; Domaine Universitaire du Sart Tilman - B.35; Liège B-4000 Belgium
- Department of Forensic Medicine; Medico-legal Institute of the University of Liège; Rue Dos-Fanchon 37; B-4020 Liège Belgium
| | - Carl Schmidt
- Department of Pathology; University of Michigan; 300 N. Ingalls, NI2D22, SPC 5452 Ann Arbor Michigan 48109 USA
| | - Nathalie Dubois
- Medico-legal Toxicology Laboratory; University Hospital - CHU Sart Tilman; Domaine Universitaire du Sart-Tilman - B.35; Liège B-4000 Belgium
| | - Raphael Denooz
- Medico-legal Toxicology Laboratory; University Hospital - CHU Sart Tilman; Domaine Universitaire du Sart-Tilman - B.35; Liège B-4000 Belgium
| | - Corinne Charlier
- Medico-legal Toxicology Laboratory; University Hospital - CHU Sart Tilman; Domaine Universitaire du Sart-Tilman - B.35; Liège B-4000 Belgium
| | - Philippe Boxho
- Department of Forensic Medicine; Medico-legal Institute of the University of Liège; Rue Dos-Fanchon 37; B-4020 Liège Belgium
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8
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Staeheli SN, Gascho D, Ebert LC, Kraemer T, Steuer AE. Time-dependent postmortem redistribution of morphine and its metabolites in blood and alternative matrices—application of CT-guided biopsy sampling. Int J Legal Med 2016; 131:379-389. [DOI: 10.1007/s00414-016-1485-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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9
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Lemaire E, Schmidt C, Denooz R, Charlier C, Boxho P. Postmortem Concentration and Redistribution of Diazepam, Methadone, and Morphine with Subclavian and Femoral Vein Dissection/Clamping. J Forensic Sci 2016; 61:1596-1603. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Lemaire
- Department of Forensic Medicine; Medico-legal Institute of the University of Liège; Liège Belgium
| | - Carl Schmidt
- Department of Pathology; University of Michigan; Ann Arbor MI
| | - Raphael Denooz
- Medico-legal Toxicology Laboratory; University Hospital - C.H.U. Sart Tilman; Liège Belgium
| | - Corinne Charlier
- Medico-legal Toxicology Laboratory; University Hospital - C.H.U. Sart Tilman; Liège Belgium
| | - Philippe Boxho
- Department of Forensic Medicine; Medico-legal Institute of the University of Liège; Liège Belgium
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10
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Lemaire E, Schmidt C, Denooz R, Charlier C, Boxho P. Popliteal Vein Blood Sampling and the Postmortem Redistribution of Diazepam, Methadone, and Morphine. J Forensic Sci 2016; 61:1017-28. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2015] [Revised: 08/16/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Lemaire
- Department of Forensic Medicine; Medico-legal Institute of the University of Liège; Rue Dos-Fanchon 37, B-4020 Liège Belgium
| | - Carl Schmidt
- Department of Pathology; University of Michigan; 300 N. Ingalls, NI2D22 Ann Arbor Michigan 48109 USA
| | - Raphael Denooz
- Medico-legal Toxicology Laboratory; University Hospital - C.H.U. Sart Tilman; Domaine Universitaire du Sart Tilman - B.35 B-4000 Liège Belgium
| | - Corinne Charlier
- Medico-legal Toxicology Laboratory; University Hospital - C.H.U. Sart Tilman; Domaine Universitaire du Sart Tilman - B.35 B-4000 Liège Belgium
| | - Philippe Boxho
- Department of Forensic Medicine; Medico-legal Institute of the University of Liège; Rue Dos-Fanchon 37, B-4020 Liège Belgium
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11
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Postmortem redistribution of the heroin metabolites morphine and morphine-3-glucuronide in rabbits over 24 h. Int J Legal Med 2015; 130:519-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s00414-015-1185-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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12
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Monteil-Ganiere C, Gaulier JM, Chopineaux D, Barrios L, Pineau A, Dailly É, Clément R. Fatal anoxia due to rachacha consumption: Two cases reported. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 245:e1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 09/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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13
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14
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Should Postmortem Subclavian Blood be Considered a Peripheral or Central Sample? Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2013; 34:155-8. [DOI: 10.1097/paf.0b013e318288b0d5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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15
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Distribution of opiates in femoral blood and vitreous humour in heroin/morphine-related deaths. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 226:152-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Seldén T, Ahlner J, Druid H, Kronstrand R. Toxicological and pathological findings in a series of buprenorphine related deaths. Possible risk factors for fatal outcome. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 220:284-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Carvalho F, Duarte JA, Remião F, Marques A, Santos A, Magalhães T. Collection of biological samples in forensic toxicology. Toxicol Mech Methods 2010; 20:363-414. [PMID: 20615091 DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2010.497976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Forensic toxicology is the study and practice of the application of toxicology to the purposes of the law. The relevance of any finding is determined, in the first instance, by the nature and integrity of the specimen(s) submitted for analysis. This means that there are several specific challenges to select and collect specimens for ante-mortem and post-mortem toxicology investigation. Post-mortem specimens may be numerous and can endow some special difficulties compared to clinical specimens, namely those resulting from autolytic and putrefactive changes. Storage stability is also an important issue to be considered during the pre-analytic phase, since its consideration should facilitate the assessment of sample quality and the analytical result obtained from that sample. The knowledge on degradation mechanisms and methods to increase storage stability may enable the forensic toxicologist to circumvent possible difficulties. Therefore, advantages and limitations of specimen preservation procedures are thoroughfully discussed in this review. Presently, harmonized protocols for sampling in suspected intoxications would have obvious utility. In the present article an overview is given on sampling procedures for routinely collected specimens as well as on alternative specimens that may provide additional information on the route and timing of exposure to a specific xenobiotic. Last, but not least, a discussion on possible bias that can influence the interpretation of toxicological results is provided. This comprehensive review article is intented as a significant help for forensic toxicologists to accomplish their frequently overwhelming mission.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Dinis-Oliveira
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Ferreirós N, Dresen S, Hermanns-Clausen M, Auwaerter V, Thierauf A, Müller C, Hentschel R, Trittler R, Skopp G, Weinmann W. Fatal and severe codeine intoxication in 3-year-old twins--interpretation of drug and metabolite concentrations. Int J Legal Med 2009; 123:387-94. [PMID: 19350261 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-009-0340-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2008] [Accepted: 03/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This work presents two cases of codeine intoxication in 3-year-old monozygotic twin brothers while treated with a codeine slow-release formulation. One child had to be admitted to the hospital, whereas the other one died at home after aspiration of gastric content. The concentrations of codeine and major metabolites including morphine and corresponding glucuronide conjugates were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in serum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and brain tissue, respectively. A genetic polymorphism study was carried out in order to determine the ability of the children to metabolize codeine by O-demethylation. A pharmacokinetic calculation was also performed to estimate the administered dose of codeine in question. High concentrations of all substances were found in samples of both children. The pharmacokinetic estimate suggests an overdose of codeine, and the possible reasons for the high opiate concentrations are discussed. Furthermore, the postmortem distribution--during and after resuscitation--might play a major role in the interpretation of postmortem concentration levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerea Ferreirós
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany
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20
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Jiménez C, Ventura R, Segura J, de la Torre R. Protocols for stability and homogeneity studies of drugs for its application to doping control. Anal Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2004.03.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
Conducting toxicology on post-mortem specimens provides a number of very significant challenges to the scientist. The range of additional specimens include tissues such as decomposing blood and other tissues, hair, muscle, fat, lung, and even larvae feeding on the host require special techniques to isolate a foreign substance and allow detection without interference from the matrix. A number of drugs of abuse are unstable in the post-mortem environment that requires careful consideration when trying to interpret their significance. Heroin, morphine glucuronides, cocaine and the benzodiazepines are particularly prone to degradation. Moreover, redistributive process can significantly alter the concentration of drugs, particularly those with a higher tissue concentration than the surrounding blood. The designer amphetamines, methadone and other potent opioids will increase their concentration in blood post-mortem. These processes together with the development of tolerance means that no concentration of a drug of abuse can be interpreted in isolation without a thorough examination of the relevant circumstances and after the conduct of a post-mortem to eliminate or corroborate relevant factors that could impact on the drug concentration and the possible effect of a substance on the body. This article reviews particular toxicological issues associated with the more common drugs of abuse such as the amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, opioids and the benzodiazepines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf H Drummer
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, 57-83 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, 3006 Melbourne, Australia.
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22
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Schmidt P, Schmolke C, Musshoff F, Prohaska C, Menzen M, Madea B. Numerical density of mu opioid receptor expressing neurons in the frontal cortex of drug related fatalities. Forensic Sci Int 2001; 115:219-29. [PMID: 11074177 DOI: 10.1016/s0379-0738(00)00333-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In animal and cell culture experiments, chronic morphine treatment has been followed by 'up'- as well as 'down-regulation' of the mu opioid receptor (mu OR) number. The present postmortem morphometric study of morphine-related fatalities of drug addicts (n=12, and 22-35 years old, with blood unconjugated morphine levels from 27.1 to 458 ng/ml, m.v. 198.5 ng/ml) versus a non-addicted control group (n=13 and 10-44 years old) was intended to examine whether chronic opiate exposure affects the numerical density of mu OR expressing neurons in the human neocortex (area 10 according to Brodmann). For the immunohistochemical procedure, thick (100 microm) vibratome sections were incubated with a monoclonal antibody against the mu OR [Arvidsson et al., J. Neurosci. 15 (1995) 3328] and immunoreactive sites were visualized using an immunoperoxidase protocol. The numerical densities of mu OR-expressing and Nissl-stained neurons were assessed morphometrically (camera lucida-drawings). In both collectives, the anti-mu OR immunoreactivity was mainly found in pyramidal neurons of layers (L) II/III and V and in multiform neurons of L VI. In the drug-related fatalities and the control group, the density of neurons expressing mu OR protein was similar, amounting for 2698 +/- 153 and 2688 +/- 172/mm(3), respectively. These findings extend the binding studies of opioid ligands in postmortem brains of heroin addicts [Gabilondo et al., Psychopharmacology 115 (1994) 135] revealing similar receptor densities and affinities by showing no difference in the density of mu OR-positive neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Schmidt
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Rheinische-Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Bonn, Stiftsplatz 12, 53111, Bonn, Germany
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Schmidt P, Schmolke C, Musshoff F, Menzen M, Prohaska C, Madea B. Numerical density of delta-opioid receptor expressing neurons in the frontal cortex of drug-related fatalities. Forensic Sci Int 2000; 113:423-33. [PMID: 10978658 DOI: 10.1016/s0379-0738(00)00203-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
In animal experiment and in cell culture, chronic morphine treatment has been followed by a reduction as well as an increase of the delta-opioid receptor (OR) number. The present postmortem morphometric study of morphine-related fatalities of drug addicts (n=12, 22-35 years old, with blood unconjugated morphine levels from 27.1 to 407 ng/ml, m.v. 176.9 ng/ml) versus a non-addicted control group (n=13, 10-44 years old) is intended to examine whether chronic opiate exposure also affects the numerical density of deltaOR expressing neurons in the human neocortex (area 10 according to Brodmann (Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde (1909) Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig)). For the immunohistochemical procedure, vibratome sections (100 microm) were incubated with a monoclonal antibody against the deltaOR diluted 1:100, and immunoreactive sites were visualized using an immunoperoxidase protocol. The numerical densities of OR expressing and Nissl-stained neurons were assessed morphometrically (camera lucida drawings). In both collectives, the anti deltaOR immunoreactivity was predominantly localized in pyramidal neurons of layers (L) II/III and V as well as in round and ovoid neurons of L VI. In the drug-related fatalities, the density of neurons expressing deltaOR protein amounted for 2515+/-240/mm(3), in the control group for 2616+/-204/mm(3), thus displaying no statistically significant difference. These findings go along with the binding behavior of opioid ligands in postmortem brains of heroin addicts revealing similar receptor densities and affinities in the control subjects and addicts.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Schmidt
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Bonn, Stiftsplatz 12, 53111, Bonn, Germany
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Cook DS, Braithwaite RA, Hale KA. Estimating antemortem drug concentrations from postmortem blood samples: the influence of postmortem redistribution. J Clin Pathol 2000; 53:282-5. [PMID: 10823124 PMCID: PMC1731178 DOI: 10.1136/jcp.53.4.282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To compare blood drug concentrations during life with postmortem drug concentrations measured from a peripheral site and a central site. METHODS Coroner's cases from October 1990 to July 1997 were reviewed. Six cases had data on both antemortem and postmortem blood drug concentrations. The postmortem to antemortem ratio was compared with the postmortem central to peripheral ratio, using cardiac blood as a central site and femoral blood as a peripheral site. RESULTS Drugs that have a high postmortem central to peripheral ratio; that is, drugs that exhibit considerable postmortem redistribution, also have high postmortem to antemortem ratios. CONCLUSIONS A large degree of error can arise from attempting to estimate antemortem drug concentrations and the ingested dose from postmortem measurements. The chosen site and technique for postmortem blood sampling can greatly influence the concentration of drug measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Cook
- Regional Laboratory for Toxicology, City Hospital NHS Trust, Birmingham, UK
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Dienes-Nagy A, Rivier L, Giroud C, Augsburger M, Mangin P. Method for quantification of morphine and its 3- and 6- glucuronides, codeine, codeine glucuronide and 6-monoacetylmorphine in human blood by liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry for routine analysis in forensic toxicology. J Chromatogr A 1999; 854:109-18. [PMID: 10497932 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(99)00750-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Simultaneous determination of opiates and their glucuronides in body fluids has a great practical interest in the forensic assessment of heroin intoxication. A selective and sensitive method for quantification of morphine and its 3- and 6-glucuronides, codeine, codeine glucuronide and 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) based on liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry is described. The drugs were analysed in human autopsy whole blood after solid-phase extraction on a C8 cartridge. The separation was performed on an ODS column in acetonitrile (analysis time 15 min). For the quantitative analysis, deuterated analogues of each compound were used as internal standards. Selected-ion monitoring was applied where the molecular ion was chosen for quantification. The limits of quantification were 0.5 ng/ml for morphine and 6-MAM and 1 ng/ml for the 6-glucuronide of morphine, codeine-6-glucuronide and codeine and 5 ng/ml for the 3-glucuronide of morphine.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Dienes-Nagy
- Institut Universitaire de Médecine Légale, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Abstract
The results of recent investigations of the analgesic and the nonanalgesic effects of opioid glucuronides are relevant to the research on drug abuse in forensic toxicology. As has been shown for heroin, knowledge of the state of distribution and elimination of active and inactive metabolites and glucuronides offers new possibilities in forensic interpretation of analytic results. Because of similar metabolic degradation, calculation of the time-dependent ratio of the concentration of morphine and its glucuronide metabolites in blood or serum allows a rough estimation of increased dosage and of time elapsed since the last application. Drug effects can be examined with respect to individual case histories, including overdose and survival time if the patient died. However, different methods of administration and the strong influence of different volumes or compartments of distribution of parent compounds and metabolites on concentrations in human body tissues require careful use of glucuronide concentration data. In Germany, dihydrocodeine (DHC) is prescribed as a heroin substitute, and relative overdoses are needed to be effective. DHC metabolism was studied in three patients who died from overdoses. All metabolites (dihydrocodeine-6-glucuronide [DHC6], nor-DHC [NDHC], dihydromorphine [DHM], nor-DHM [NDHM], and DHM-3- and 6-glucuronide [DHM3G, DHM6G]) were determined using HPLC and fluorescence detection. Concentrations of DHM (0.16 mg/L to 0.22 mg/L serum) were found. The DHM glucuronide ratios were similar to those of morphine. Receptor binding studies showed that the binding affinity of DHM to porcine mu-receptor was higher than that of morphine, and DHM6G's binding affinity was as high as that of morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G). Metabolites may play an important role in the effectiveness of DHC in substitution and toxicity. Because of enzyme polymorphism, the formation of DHC poses a risk for proper dosage in patients who are either poor or extensive metabolizers. The distribution of opioid glucuronides in cerebral spinal fluid in relation to transcellular transport in central nervous tissue is discussed with respect to the receptor binding of opiates and drug effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Aderjan
- Institute of Legal Medicine and Traffic Medicine, Heidelberg, Germany
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