A developmental perspective of gambling behavior in children and adolescents

Age of gambling onset and resultant gambling behavior during young adulthood in the United States

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Previous research has examined how the age at which an individual first gambles (age of gambling onset) correlates with problematic behavior later in life, such as problematic alcohol or substance use; however, much less is known about how age of gambling onset, particularly as a child or as a young adult, might influence future gambling. We assessed how self-reported age of gambling onset may have shaped more recent gambling and propensity to take risks.

METHODS

We analyzed questionnaire data and neurocognitive assessment data collected from young adults in the United States (n = 579) and conducted ordinal logistic regression to model our study variables.

RESULTS

Upon examining three distinct age categories (under 18, 18-20, 21, and over), we found that earlier age of gambling onset was significantly associated with betting a higher overall proportion during a neurocognitive task. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Gambling more points on a laboratory-based task was correlated to earlier age of gambling onset. There were no statistically significant associations between age of gambling onset and severity of recent pathological gambling, nor gambling expenditure in the past year, nor gambling frequency in the past week. Future longitudinal study should discern the causality of these findings in both directions and ascertain whether these findings can be extended to older and clinical populations. Future work should explore other variables, such as ethnicity and socioeconomic background, that may be relevant to understanding variations in age of gambling onset and its repercussions.

Loot boxes and problem gambling: Investigating the "gateway hypothesis"

Loot boxes are purchasable items in video games with a chance-based outcome. They have attracted substantial attention from academics and legislators over recent years, partly because of associations between loot box engagement and problem gambling. Some researchers have suggested that loot boxes may act as a gateway into subsequent gambling and/or problem gambling. However, such "gateway effects" have not been formally investigated. Using a survey of 1102 individuals who both purchase loot boxes and gamble, we found that 19.87% of the sample self-reported either "gateway effects" (loot boxes causally influencing subsequent gambling) or "reverse gateway effects" (gambling causally influencing subsequent loot box engagement). Both subsets of participants had higher scores for problem gambling, problem video gaming, gambling-related cognitions, risky loot boxes engagement, and impulsivity. These individuals also had a tendency for higher loot box and gambling spend; suggesting that potential gateway effects are related to measurable risks and harms. Moreover, the majority of participants reporting gateway effects were under 18 when they first purchased loot boxes. Content analysis of free text responses revealed several reasons for self-reported gateway effects, the most frequent of which were sensation-seeking, normalisation of gambling-like behaviours, and the addictive nature of both activities. Whilst the cross-sectional nature of our findings cannot conclusively establish directions of causality, thus highlighting the need for longitudinal research, we conclude that there is a case for legislation on loot boxes for harm minimisation purposes.

A review of educational-based gambling prevention programs for adolescents

Educational-based problem gambling prevention programs are important avenues in targeting at-risk behaviors among adolescents to prevent an escalation of problematic behaviors into adulthood. The aim of this review is to examine features pertinent to effective educational-based programs in the area of adolescent problem gambling prevention in hopes of providing a foundation and future suggestions for preventive efforts. A stronger understanding of this research area will be essential in ensuring that past practical and theoretical advancements are integrated into the development of future programs.

Macau parents' perceptions of underage children's gambling involvement

Objectives

The study examined Macau parents’ perceptions of underage children’s gambling involvement, and parents’ attitudes towards help seeking if their children had a gambling problem. The parents’ gambling behavior in the past year was also investigated.

Methods

This is a parent survey using a self-administered questionnaire. A convenience sample of 311 Macau parents (106 fathers and 205 mothers) with underage children aged 3–17 years was recruited. The response rate is 77.8%. The participants were asked if they had ever approved or taught their underage children to gamble, and how did they award their children when they won in gambling games. The parents were also asked if they had gambled in the previous 12 months, and their gambling behavior was assessed by the Chinese Problem Gambling Severity Index (CPGSI).

Results

Half of the parents surveyed (52%) did not approve underage gambling but 81% taught their underage children to play different gambling games. Children were awarded with money (55%), praises (17.5%), toys (15%) and food (12.5%) when they won in games. One-fifth (20.6%) were distressed with their children’s gambling problem. Many (68.8%) were willing to seek help to cope with children’s gambling problems. Only 21.2% (n = 66) of the parents reported gambling in the past year. Using the CPGSI, 4.5% of these gamblers could be identified as problem gamblers, and 16.7% were moderate-risk gamblers.

Conclusion

The study results indicate parent education should be included in prevention of underage gambling.

Bread, milk and a Tattslotto ticket: the interpretive repertoires of young adult gambling in Australia

The discourse of Australian young adults who gamble regularly was analysed to explore key dilemmas and challenges of a generation who grew up with the positive and negative impacts of gambling advertisements. Qualitative interviews of seven young recreational gamblers who regularly frequent gaming machine venues were conducted. The discourse that they used to describe their gambling involvement, motivation, development and subjective views were analysed and three central repertoires: 'Culture not self,' 'If it makes you happy,' and 'No problem here!' were identified. The current findings demonstrate the participants' attempts to understand and legitimise their gambling. Further, it was suggested that young adults face a series of dilemmas when deciding whether to gamble and to what extent they gamble. Their discourse highlights the tension between individual agency, societal expectations and familial influence. The respondents primarily gambled for social reasons in a manner which they perceived as culturally acceptable. The importance of harm minimization and public awareness campaigns directed at young adults was also discussed.

The winner takes it all? Characteristics of adolescent at-risk/problem gamblers in Switzerland

BACKGROUND

Gambling has and still entertains people in almost all societies throughout the world. Western societies have faced considerable changes in the amount and accessibility of gambling possibilities during the last decades, and the rates of both adolescent gamblers and problem gamblers have increased significantly.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the characteristics of at-risk and problem adolescent gamblers in Switzerland.

SUBJECTS

The study population consisted of 3134 students (1669 females) attending post-mandatory education in 15 randomly chosen centres. Participants were divided into non- (n=2207), non-problematic (n=754) and at-risk/ problematic gamblers (n=176).

METHODS

Both gambling groups were compared to non-gamblers on socio-demographic measures, substance use and Internet use. Overall, 29.6% had gambled during the past year and 5.6% had gambled in a risky or problematic way. Compared to non-gamblers and after controlling for potential confounders, non-problem gamblers were significantly more likely to be male, apprentices and to misuse alcohol. At-risk/problematic gamblers were additionally more likely to smoke cannabis, to be problematic Internet users and to be non-Swiss than non-gamblers.

CONCLUSION

At-risk and problematic adolescent gambling is associated with other health risk behaviours. Health practitioners should include gambling in the psycho-social screening and preventive counselling of adolescents.

[Play behavior in people with various degrees of pathological gambling risk]

OBJECTIVE

We studied play behavior of customers of betting offices.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A study included 216 people who were surveyed using the Canadian problem gambling index. According to the results of the test, we stratified the sample by the risk of pathological gambling.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The high prevalence of people with medium and high risk of pathological gambling was identified. Significant differences in the characteristics of gambling behavior were found. We described the qualitative and quantitative indicators of gaming activity that proved the appearance of the addicted dominant in the high-risk group (changes in the motivational sphere, financial loss, using alternative forms of the game, the regular play activity and low level of the reflection of problems caused by the game).

Gambling-related cognitive biases and pathological gambling among youths, young adults, and mature adults in Chinese societies

This study investigated the extent to which gambling-related cognitive biases would associate with various levels of gambling pathology among 2,835 youths, 934 young adults, and 162 mature adults in Chinese societies. Results showed that gambling cognitive biases, especially biases in perceived inability to stop gambling and positive gambling expectancy, were salient correlates of pathological gambling across the three age cohorts. Analyses of variances on total cognitive biases also showed a gambling pathology main effect and an age cohort × gambling pathology 2-way interaction effect. It was noted that the probable pathological gambling group had greater cognitive biases than the probable problem gambling group, which in turn had greater cognitive biases than the non-problem gambling group. In the non-problem gambling group, mature adults had greater cognitive biases than youths and young adults, but this pattern was reversed in the probable problem gambling group. In the probable pathological gambling group, youths had greater cognitive biases than young and mature adults. Specific categories of cognitive biases also varied according to gender and gambling pathology. While men as compared to women in the non-problem and probable problem gambling groups reported a greater bias in their perceived inability to stop gambling, no significant gender difference in this bias was found in the probable pathological gambling group. Men generally had greater perceived gambling expectancy bias than women.

Brief motivational feedback and cognitive behavioral interventions for prevention of disordered gambling: a randomized clinical trial

AIMS

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate feasibility and efficacy of two promising approaches to indicated prevention of disordered gambling in a college population.

DESIGN

Randomized clinical trial with assignment to a personalized feedback intervention (PFI), cognitive-behavioral intervention (CBI) or assessment-only control (AOC). PFI was delivered individually in a single session and included feedback regarding gambling behavior, norms, consequences and risk-reduction tips, delivered in a motivational interviewing style. CBI was delivered in small groups over four to six sessions and included functional analysis and brief cognitive correction, as well as identification of and alternatives for responding to gambling triggers.

SETTING

College campus.

PARTICIPANTS

At-risk or probable pathological gamblers (n = 147; 65.3% male; group assignment: PFI, n = 52; CBI, n = 44; AOC, n = 51).

MEASUREMENTS

Self-reported gambling quantity, frequency, consequences, psychopathology, normative perceptions and beliefs.

FINDINGS

Relative to control, results at 6-month follow-up indicated reductions in both interventions for gambling consequences (PFI d = 0.48; CBI d = 0.39) and DSM-IV criteria (PFI d = 0.60; CBI d = 0.48), reductions in frequency for PFI (d = 0.48). CBI was associated with reduced illusions of control, whereas PFI was associated with reduced perceptions of gambling frequency norms. Reductions in perceived gambling frequency norms mediated effects of PFI on gambling frequency.

CONCLUSIONS

A single-session personalized feedback intervention and a multi-session cognitive-behavioral intervention may be helpful in reducing disordered gambling in US college students.

Prevalence of adolescent problem gambling, related harms and help-seeking behaviours among an Australian population

Epidemiological studies have consistently reported prevalence rates ranging between 0.9 and 23.5% for problem gambling among young people. With such a large range reported in the literature, it is clear that more research in this area would be of value. The current study investigated the prevalence rate of adolescent gambling and problem gambling and explored types of harm-related and help-seeking behaviours associated with gambling specific to this population in an Australian setting. A self-administered battery of questionnaires was distributed to 252 students aged 12-18 years, attending four private schools in the Eastern suburbs of Sydney, Australia. The battery included a self-administered socio-gambling demographic questionnaire, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Fourth Edition Multiple Response Juvenile (DSM-IV-MR-J) diagnostic instrument to assess problem gambling status, the Gambling Attitudes Scale, and questionnaires using a Likert scale to measure gambling-related harms and help-seeking behaviours. The prevalence rate among this group was found to be 6.7%. The study found further support for previous findings suggesting that a significant proportion of young people meet criteria for problem gambling, that males are at-risk and that few adolescents are able to recognise when gambling is problematic or access mental health professionals for assistance.

Adolescent gambling: a review of an emerging field of research

PURPOSE

The purpose of this review was to summarize the research on adolescent gambling with implications for research and prevention or intervention.

METHOD

The methodology involved a comprehensive and systematic search of "adolescent or youth gambling" in three diverse electronic databases (MedlineAdvanced, PsycINFO, and Sociological Abstracts) and three peer-reviewed journals (International Journal of Gambling Studies, International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, and Journal of Gambling Issues).

RESULTS

The search resulted in 137 articles (1985-2010) focusing on gambling among youth aged between 9 and 21 years: 103 quantitative, 8 qualitative, and 26 non-empirical. The study of adolescent gambling can be summarized as follows: (a) it is conducted by a relatively small group of researchers in Britain, Canada, and the United States; (b) it is primarily prevalence-focused, quantitative, descriptive, school-based, and atheoretical; (c) it has most often been published in the Journal of Gambling Studies; (d) it is most often examined in relation to alcohol use; (e) it has relatively few valid and reliable screening instruments that are developmentally appropriate for adolescents, and (f) it lacks racially diverse samples.

CONCLUSION

Four recommendations are presented for both research and prevention or intervention which are as follows: (1) to provide greater attention to the development and validation of survey instruments or diagnostic criteria to assess adolescent problem gambling; (2) to begin to develop and test more gambling prevention or intervention strategies; (3) to not only examine the co-morbidity of gambling and alcohol abuse, but also include other behaviors such as sexual activity; and (4) to pay greater attention to racial and ethnic differences in the study of adolescent gambling.

Non-substance-addictive behaviors in youth: pathological gambling and problematic Internet use

Adolescence is characterized by participation in multiple novel and potentially risky behaviors. Amongst these behaviors are gambling and use of the Internet, and excessive engagement in these activities (as seen in pathological gambling and problematic Internet use) may be accompanied by serious impairments in school, mental health, and social functioning. This article reviews the potential impact of pathological gambling and problematic Internet use in youth, the relevance of subsyndromal levels of participation, and how prevention and treatment strategies may be considered and tested within a developmental framework.

Knowledge and beliefs about gambling in Australian secondary school students and their implications for education strategies

This study investigated the nature of gambling-related knowledge and beliefs in a survey study of 2,669 students aged 13-17 years in South Australia. Students were classified as pathological gamblers, at risk, or not at risk based upon the DSM-IV-J, and their responses to questions relating to objective odds, probabilities, and common misperceptions were compared. The study confirmed previous studies which have shown that pathological gamblers are more susceptible to erroneous beliefs concerning randomness and chance, but do not differ in terms of their knowledge of objective odds. These findings were discussed in terms of Ladouceur's notion of "cognitive switching" and the distinction drawn between "hot" and "cold" cognitions in clinical outcome studies. The implications for school-based education programs are examined with attention given to the potential value of role-playing and simulations in encouraging student reflection and self-awareness.

Gambling among the Chinese: a comprehensive review

Despite being a significant issue, there has been a lack of systematic reviews on gambling and problem gambling (PG) among the Chinese. Thus, this paper attempts to fill this theoretical gap. A literature search of social sciences databases (from 1840 to now) yielded 25 articles with a total sample of 12,848 Chinese community participants and 3397 clinical participants. The major findings were: (1) Social gambling is widespread among Chinese communities as it is a preferred form of entertainment. (2) Prevalence estimates for PG have increased over the years and currently ranged from 2.5% to 4.0%. (3) Chinese problem gamblers consistently have difficulty admitting their issue and seeking professional help for fear of losing respect. (4) Theories, assessments, and interventions developed in the West are currently used to explain and treat PG among the Chinese. There is an urgent need for theory-based interventions specifically tailored for Chinese problem gamblers. (5) Cultural differences exist in patterns of gambling when compared with Western samples; however, evidence is inconsistent. Methodological considerations in this area of research are highlighted and suggestions for further investigation are also included. (6) Much of gambling research has focused on identifying risk factors and at-risk individuals. It is essential to balance this knowledge with a focus on fundamental character strengths, which act as protective factors and motivate one to refrain from gambling.

Video lottery terminal access and gambling among high school students in Montréal

BACKGROUND

Gambling is a risky behaviour that involves uncertain financial outcomes, can be addictive, and has been associated with strongly adverse social and public health outcomes. We wanted to assess whether socio-economic and gambling-related-opportunity environments of neighbourhoods affected the uptake of video lottery terminal (VLT) gambling among Montréal youth.

METHODS

Spatial and statistical analyses were conducted to examine geographical patterns of neighbourhood socio-economic conditions, VLT sites (n=407), and high school locations (n=305) within the Montréal Census Metropolitan Area (CMA). VLT concentration within high school neighbourhoods was measured to examine how the number of VLT opportunities varies according to socio-economic status of the school neighbourhood. A student survey was analyzed using logistic regression analysis to explore the role of individual (student) characteristics and environmental (neighbourhood) characteristics in predicting the VLT gambling behaviours reported among a sample (n=1206) of high school students.

RESULTS

Video lottery gambling opportunities are more prevalent near schools located in socio-economically deprived neighbourhoods compared with schools located in more affluent neighbourhoods. The principal individual risk factors for VLT gambling were shown to be male sex, peer VLT-use, substance use, as well as the after-school routines of youth.

INTERPRETATION

The spatial distribution of VLTs reflects local geographies of socio-economic disadvantage and may have a pronounced impact on students attending schools in lower income neighbourhoods, especially those with individual risk factors. Efforts to reduce gambling-related public health costs may want to take into account the socio-spatial distribution of gambling opportunities, particularly in the local environments that youth frequent.

[Efficiency of a gambling prevention program for youths: results from the pilot study]

A meta-analysis of North American studies indicates that the prevalence rate of pathological gambling varies between 4.4% and 7.4% among adolescents. Pathological gambling is thus not a phenomenon that suddenly appears once youths reach an adult age. On the contrary, significant contact with gambling occurs in childhood adolescence. For this reason, it is important to develop an effective gambling prevention program that will reduce the risk that youths will develop gambling problems. The information promoted in the prevention program our research team created and evaluated here teaches youths to recognize the traps of gambling activities, while enabling them to make an informed decision as to their eventual participation in those activities. The program is based on knowledge and recognition of key indices that can be easily identified as warning signs of a loss of control. It is predicted that youths who participate in this prevention program will improve their knowledge of gambling activities and will develop a more realistic attitude towards those activities than youths from a control group. The experimental group's problem-solving skills are also expected to improve. An experimental design (pre-test, post-test and follow-ups with control group) was used to evaluate the program's effectiveness. Overall, 1193 youths participated in this study. The prevention program involves three 60-minute meetings. The objectives of these meetings are the following: (meeting #1) improve youths' knowledge of gambling activities and help them acquire a more realistic attitude towards these activities; (meeting #2) teach a structured problem-solving approach to resist to peer-pressure; (meeting #3) inform youths of the consequences that may be associated with abusive participation in gambling and teach them to recognize warning signs of a loss of control over gambling habits.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

(a) knowledge of and attitudes towards gambling and gambling activities; (b) problem-solving skills; (c) frequency of participation in gambling activities; (d) discussion with relatives, friends and teachers regarding gambling activities and attention paid towards gambling habits among close friends and family. Participation in the gambling prevention program significantly improves youths' knowledge of the real probabilities of winning and the pitfalls included in gambling activities and favours the development of a more realistic attitude towards these activities. However, the participation in the prevention program does not help to improve their problem-solving skills. Nonetheless, it leads more youths to talk about gambling with their parents and teachers, and enables them to be more aware of the gambling habits of their friends and family. Finally, note that it was impossible to verify any decrease in gambling habits as the majority of participants (62%) were non or very occasional gamblers. However, no iatrogenic effect was observed on the frequency of participation in gambling activities. Aside the positive impact of the program on the attitudes and knowledge of students, participation in the preventive sessions contributed to create a dialogue with adults and increased youths' interest in the gambling habits of their friends and family. These discussions enabled the youths to validate the information they received during class, to consolidate what they learned during the prevention sessions, and favour the dissemination of this knowledge beyond the scope of the academic environment. The results obtained regarding youths' attitudes and knowledge demonstrate that attitude modification takes place progressively. However, once well assimilated, these new attitudes seem to take hold in a fairly durable way. On the other hand, acquisition of knowledge seems to take place immediately after the theoretical concepts are taught. Yet, they slightly decreased before stabilising a few months later. This suggests that assimilation of new knowledge may be optimized by the addition of an intervention session a couple of months after the end of the intervention. Even if it was impossible to verify any decrease in participants' gambling habits, it is possible to think that the impact of participation in the gambling prevention program could be observable and measurable within a few years. However, only a long-term follow-up study would make it possible to assess whether participation in the program does indeed contribute to decreasing gambling habits and the number of youths who regularly participate in gambling activities. Despite the non-significant results observed for problem-solving skills, it seems nonetheless important to include this component, which benefits from great theoretical support, especially within the framework of prevention programs targeting youths. However, the teaching method must be changed in order to maximize the intervention's effectiveness. Despite some methodological limitations observed during the evaluation of this program, the results obtained clearly demonstrate that participation in the prevention program significantly improves youths' attitudes and knowledge regarding gambling activities. The teaching of accurate knowledge and realistic attitudes towards gambling should help youths to recognize the cognitive traps inherent to gambling activities and thus contribute, over the long run, to decrease the number of youths with gambling problems.

Parental Modeling, Attachment, and Supervision as Moderators of Adolescent Gambling

Utilizing Jessor's Problem Behavior Theory as a theoretical foundation, 116 male and female students in grades 9-12 (mean age 16.8) from a Midwestern urban high school were surveyed to determine the prevalence and relationship among gambling behavior and parental and peer influences. To measure these variables, the following instruments were used: The SOGS-RA, the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment-Parent Scale, and The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire-Parental Monitoring and Supervision Scale. Almost all of the students (91%) reported gambling at least once in their lifetime while 36.2% reported gambling once a week, 19% reported gambling on a daily basis, and 26% were classified as problem gamblers (10% using the "narrow" SOGS-RA criteria). Parental gambling was related to levels of past year gambling as well as increased likelihood of being classified as a problem gambler. Increased parental attachment was also associated with decreased levels of adolescent gambling, while decreased parental trust and communication resulted in increased problem gambling. Measures of parental monitoring and supervision found similar outcomes in that increased monitoring and supervision resulted in lower levels of adolescent gambling. Additionally, when peer influences were moderated by parental influences, there was a moderating effect on gambling behavior. This study illuminates the continued importance parents play in both risk enhancing and risk inhibiting influences on adolescent participation in problem behaviors.

The SOGS-RA vs. the MAGS-7: prevalence estimates and classification congruence

The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence rate estimates and congruence in classification status derived from two popular measures of adolescent gambling (SOGS-RA and MAGS-7). Adolescents from three states (Alabama, Mississippi, and Oregon) completed an anonymous questionnaire ( n =1846 high school students total). Results indicate that the prevalence of probable adolescent pathological gambling varied both as a function of instrument and cut-off point utilized for classification (range 1.7%-8.2%). Classification groups (non-problem, at-risk, and problem gamblers) generated by both instruments were found to be associated with reports of gambling frequency, amount of money lost in one gambling occasion, and parental gambling problems. However, concern was raised because the MAGS-7 and the SOGS-RA had little congruence in their three-group classification decisions for specific individuals (e.g., only 20.5% agreement for problem gamblers). To improve clinical utility, an empirical case was made for using the SOGS-RA to generate a fourth group of adolescent gamblers, which we labeled "probable pathological gamblers" (SOGS-RA > or = 6). This group was differentiated from the remaining gambling groups on all the validity indices. The implications and limitations of these findings, as well as future directions, are discussed.

Individual, family, and peer correlates of adolescent gambling

The primary purpose of this study was to determine the individual, family, and peer factors that correlate with adolescent gambling. High school students from three states ( N = 1,846) completed an anonymous questionnaire assessing the behavior of themselves, their parents, and their peers. Participants also reported on their gambling behavior via the SOGS-RA, which was used to create five adolescent gambling groups (i.e., Non-Gamblers, Non-Problem Gamblers, At-Risk Gamblers, Problem Gamblers, and Probable Pathological Gamblers). In a discriminant function analysis using demographic, individual, family, and peer factors as potential discriminators, two functions emerged that accounted for 94% of the variance between groups. The first function was linear, with the Probable Pathological Gamblers reporting the highest level of peer and parent gambling, susceptibility to peer pressure, conduct problems, binge drinking, suicide attempts, drug use, and being male. The second function highlighted three unique qualities of individuals in the two outlying groups: Probable Pathological Gamblers and Non-Gamblers. These findings suggest that demographic, individual, family, and peer variables are all important correlates of probable pathological gambling in adolescents. Results also support the utility of a five-group classification scheme based on the SOGS-RA. The clinical implications of these results are discussed.

Developing the DSM-IV-DSM-IV criteria to identify adolescent problem gambling in non-clinical populations

This paper presents a revised version of DSM-IV-J criteria for youth, the DSM-IV-MR-J, together with psychometric data stemming from its use in a major prevalence study of adolescent gambling and problem gambling. The case is made for further development and testing of current and emerging instruments to screen for problem gambling in youth, with the aim of establishing one internationally accepted gold standard measure.

Adolescents with gambling problems: from research to treatment

Considerable interest in the area of youth gambling has prompted an increase in empirical investigations examining the correlates associated with youth experiencing severe gambling problems. Based upon the current state of knowledge and our clinical experience, the development of the treatment program for youth with serious gambling problems employed at the McGill University Youth Gambling Research and Treatment Clinic is described. The major tenets, underlying philosophy, and therapeutic processes are presented. A case study is included to illustrate the therapeutic approach. The authors present the need for greater funding for more basic and applied research and the necessity for further scientifically validated treatment and prevention programs.

Prevalence estimates of adolescent gambling: a comparison of the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the GA 20 questions

Concerns over the rising prevalence of adolescent gambling problems have become more commonplace. A recent meta analysis of studies examining adolescent prevalence rates by Shaffer and Hall (1996) has suggested that between 77-83% of adolescents are engaging in some form of gambling behavior with between 9.9% and 14.2% of youth remaining at risk for a serious gambling problem. Their results further suggest that between 4.4% and 7.4% of adolescents exhibit serious adverse gambling related problems and/or pathological gambling behavior. Comparisons of studies are often difficult due to the use of alternative measures, differing classification schemes, and nomenclature. The present study examined the gambling behaviors of 980 adolescents who were administered three screening measures used with adolescents; the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the GA 20 Questions. The DSM-IV-J was found to be the most conservative measure identifying 3.4% of the population as problem/pathological gamblers while the SOGS-GA identified 5.3% and the GA 20 Questions identified 6% of youth as experiencing serious gambling problems. The degree of concordance amongst the measures, gender differences, and classification systems are discussed.

Gambling involvement and drug use among adolescents

The literature on youth gambling often notes the relationship of gambling involvement to drug use. The extent of this association and its importance toward advancing knowledge about the origins and course of adolescent gambling are discussed. The authors contend that (a) adolescent gambling, like drug use, may be a normal part of adolescence from a statistical perspective, (b) claims that the prevalence rate of problem/pathological gambling is comparable or higher than the rate of substance use disorders are not supportable at this time given the weaker methodological studies in the gambling area, (c) while research suggests that similar risk factors may be important determinants for both behavior domains, prospective studies of adolescent development are needed to further clarify which factors are unique and common to adolescent gambling, and (d) greater documentation of the harm associated with adolescent gambling is a major barrier to garnering more prevention and treatment resources for this issue.

Prevalence rates of youth gambling problems: are the current rates inflated?

While there is a general consensus in the literature that it is common for youth to gamble, considerable variability in the reported prevalence rates of youth problem gambling has been found. More recently, issues concerning the possible overestimation of these rates have been raised. Arguments underlying the proposition that problem gambling rates for youth are inflated are examined. It is acknowledged that more rigorous research is required, including the need for the development and refinement of current adolescent instruments and screening tools, agreement upon a gold standard criterion for adolescent problem gambling, and clarity of nomenclature issues. The advancement of scientific knowledge concerning the underlying risk factors associated with the onset and course of youth gambling involvement and the role of effective adolescent prevention and treatment programs will require these fundamental research questions to be addressed.

Prevention of gambling among youth: Increasing knowledge and modifying attitudes toward gambling

Research shows that gambling is a popular activity among youth. The more young people become involved in these activities, the more likely they are to develop irrational thoughts and habits related to gambling. In this study, 273 French-speaking students in grades 5 and 6 helped to test a video designed to (a) increase knowledge about gambling and (b) correct inaccurate knowledge. The effectiveness of the video was evaluated using two experimental conditions and one control condition. Analysis indicated that the video significantly increased gambling knowledge and decreased errors in attitudes toward gambling. The implications of these results for the prevention of gambling problems are discussed.

Familial and social influences on juvenile gambling behavior

Social learning theory maintains that individuals model, learn and maintain behaviors that are observed, appealing and reinforcing. As such, parents and family members can often serve as significant models for gambling. Four hundred and seventy seven children between the ages of 9 and 14 completed a questionnaire inquiring about their gambling activities, including where and with whom gambling occurs, as well as information concerning their perceptions of their own gambling behavior. Results indicate that 86% of children who gamble regularly reported gambling with family members. Fifty-three percent of students who gambled within the previous 12 months reported gambling with their siblings, 40% gambled with their parents, 46% gambled with other relatives, and 75% gambled in their own homes. Students' responses also indicated gambling with their friends (75%), gambling alone (18%), and with strangers (8%). As children's age increases they tend to gamble more at friend's homes and at school. Prevalence rates indicated that 81% of the total sample had gambled at one point in their lives and 52% of those children reported gambling once a week or more. Eleven percent reported that gambling makes them feel important, 27% feel they gamble more than they desire to do so, and only 10% of the grade 8 students fear being caught gambling, suggesting gambling activities to be a socially acceptable behavior. Several clinical and research questions are addressed.

Gambling activities of young Australians: developing a model of behaviour

As more gambling venues open in Australia, youth gambling as problem behaviour has been identified. The aim of this study was to assess youth gambling in a population with easy access to gambling, and to evaluate the adequacy of a model for predicting adolescent gambling frequency and problem gambling. The model comprised a combination of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), personality variables (venturesomeness, impulsiveness), and cognitive bias variables derived from Weinstein's (1980) propositions concerning unrealistic optimism about future life events. A sample of 1017 school- and university-based adolescents indicated relatively low frequencies of gambling and low scores on the problem gambling scale, with males scoring higher than females on both measures. The TRA was supported with about 30% of the variance of each of gambling behaviour and problem gambling accounted for by intentions, attitudes, and subjective norms. Personality factors added significantly to the prediction of gambling. The cognitive bias variables, although independently not statistically significant, further contributed to prediction.

Cognitive distortions in heavy gambling

A sample of 38 regular and heavy gamblers, recruited through advertisements and not seeking treatment, were asked to describe special strategies, techniques or rituals that they used to increase their chances of winning at gambling in an open-ended interview. The mean South Oaks Gambling Screen Score for the sample was 7.7 with 64% of the sample scoring higher than 4. Their responses reflected multiple means by which the individual believed they were able to control (i.e., active illusory control, passive illusory control), reframe (i.e., interpretive control), or predict (i.e., probability control, predictive control) gambling outcomes. A larger number of cognitive distortions was associated with playing games in which skill was potentially a component (e.g., cards, sports) than in non-skill games (e.g., lotteries) as well as a positive family history of gambling. There were no sex differences. Implications of these findings for the cognitive psychopathology of gambling are discussed.

The social determinants of youth gambling in South Australian adolescents

Recent Australian studies (Moore, S.M., and Ohtsuka, K. (1997). Journal of Gambling Studies, 13, 207-236) have revealed a strong youth interest in gambling in Australia, as reflected in current participation levels, future intentions and attitudes. Implicit in much of this attitudinal research is that youth gambling is strongly influenced by the familial, social and cultural norms to which young people are exposed. In this paper, we investigate the hypothesis that gambling can be understood in terms of variations in economic socialization, namely, the way in which children learn about money, risk, and saving. A school survey of 505 adolescents (aged 15-17 years) showed that over 60% of adolescents were gambling annually and that 3.5% scored in the problematic range on the DSM-IV-J (Fisher, S.E. (1999). Addiction Research, 7, 509-538). More frequent gambling was associated with parental and peer gambling and pro-gambling attitudes, but unrelated to adolescents' attitudes towards economic concepts. Nevertheless, in partial support of the hypotheses, adolescents whose parents taught them about keeping to a budget, saving money, and maintaining their finances were less likely to express an interest in future gambling.

The Effects of Modeling and Experience on Young Children's Persistence at a Gambling Game

Gambling is common among children and adolescents, but Hide is known about factors initiating or maintaining this behavior. Fifty-one male and 51 female kindergarten and first grade children were invited to play a game involving repeated opportunities to select colored chips from a cup while blindfolded. Children playing for tangible incentives elected to play longer than those who were not (p <.001). Seeing a videotaped model win or fail to win a large prize had no effect on persistence with the game. Playing again one week later, children playing for incentives exhibited a more successful strategy, quitting sooner (p <.04) and with more winnings (p <.03). The parameters of experiential versus observational learning are discussed, with implications for educating children about risk-taking.

Parents' Attitudes and Knowledge Regarding Gambling Among Youths

This study evaluates attitudes and knowledge of parents regarding gambling behaviors among youths, aged 5 to 17 years. Telephone interviews were conducted among 279 randomly selected parents (32% fathers and 68% mothers) in the Quebec City region. Results indicate that parents overestimate the age of children's first wagers and underestimate the probability that their own child has already gambled. Most parents (86%) believe that the availability of gambling for youths should be reduced and that schools should include prevention programs concerning problem gambling. Results also show that parents fail to associate excessive gambling with poor grades or with alcohol and drug use. Finally, 84% of the parents reported that they would accept buying lottery tickets for their child. These results suggest that prevention programs for excessive gambling among children should include information for parents.

Adolescent Gambling Behavior: A Prevalence Study and Examination of the Correlates Associated with Problem Gambling

Eight-hundred and seventeen adolescent high school students in the Montreal region completed the DSM-IV-J gambling screen along with a questionnaire devised by the authors inquiring about their gambling behavior, including items assessing the types of activities in which they engage, frequency of involvement, reasons for gambling, and their cognitive perceptions of gambling activities. The results indicate that, in general, 80.2% of students reported having gambled during the previous year, with 35.1% gambling a minimum of once per week. Adolescents reported participating in gambling behavior more often than any other addictive behavior, including cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and illicit drug use. The mean age of onset of gambling behavior for the sample was 11.5 years. The rate of pathological gambling was 4.7% as measured by the DSM-IV-J. Pathological gamblers were more likely to have parents with gambling problems and to be engaging in illegal activities than non-pathological gamblers. Gender differences were evident, with males engaging in gambling activities more than females. Differences in game preferences were found, with males more attracted to sports lottery tickets and sports pool betting and females more attracted to lottery tickets and bingo. Gambling awareness and prevention issues are addressed.

Adolescent perceptions of the National Lottery and scratchcards: a qualitative study using group interviews

Recent research has consistently shown that a small but significant minority of youth engage in illegal lottery and scratchcard gambling. It is clear that most adolescents experience few gambling-related problems as a result of lotteries and scratchcards. However, it is less clear how gambling may be affecting them at a more general level. The present study set out to examine in more detail the perceptions identified in a previous survey. The study provided an opportunity for the participants to articulate and outline what they thought were the most salient issues through the use of semi-structured group interviews. Six separate group interviews took place (three groups of six adolescents and three groups of seven adolescents) aged 11-15 years. Results revealed many salient themes including winning money, socialization, different forms of excitement associated with these activities (entertainment, the fantasy of winning, and the "buzz"), control, (personal choice, luck, chance), and awareness of social problems. These are discussed in relation to the previous survey literature.

Adolescent accounts of the UK National Lottery and scratchcards: an analysis using Q-sorts

The study examined adolescents' accounts of the UK National Lottery and scratchcards. Q-sorts were used to examine the views of 62 participants aged between 11 and 15 years of age. Findings identified four distinct accounts in relation to the National Lottery (Moral Opposition, Luck Seeking, Rationalist, & Uncertainty), and four distinct accounts in relation to scratchcards (Scepticism, Thrill-Seeking, Rationalist, & Libertarian). Some of the accounts identified described the UK National Lottery and scratchcards as bona fide forms of gambling. Reports indicated that adolescents were pessimistic about the chances of winning large sums of money, while other accounts demonstrated gambling misperceptions particularly in relation to their belief in luck and the laws of probability. It is argued that to fully understand why adolescents take part in these activities it is important to consider the diverse ways that adolescents represent these activities. These differing representations will have consequences for measures aimed at reducing, preventing, or treating adolescent problem gambling. The utility of Q-sorts as a technique for examining the views of problem and non-problem gamblers is also discussed.

The prevention of gambling problems in youth: a conceptual framework

Despite increased awareness of the need to begin educating young children about the potential dangers of gambling, empirical knowledge of the prevention of adolescent problem gambling and its translation into science-based prevention initiatives is scarce. This paper poses the question of whether or not the common elements of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug abuse prevention programs can be applied to gambling prevention. Common risk and protective factors across addictions, including gambling, appear to point to the need to develop a general model of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. The authors present the need for science-based prevention initiatives and describe a general adolescent risk-taking model as a basis for science-based prevention of adolescent problem gambling and other risk behaviors.

Social influences involved in children's gambling behavior

Children (N = 130) in grades 4 and 6 from various schools in the Greater Montreal Region completed a questionnaire concerning their gambling behavior and played a computer-simulated roulette game individually (baseline trial & post-test trial) and in groups (same and mixed gender dyads or triads: group trial). The purpose of this design was to measure children's betting behavior (via average wagers) and to determine if any changes in betting occur as a result of playing in groups of two, three, same and/or different gender peers. Results of repeated measures analyses reveal that during individual and group play, males consistently exhibit higher average wagers than females. Average wagers of females and mixed gender groupings appear to be most affected by the group condition. Females were found to increase their average wagers when playing with females and males. Female dyads' wagers increase significantly during group play, indicating they are dramatically affected by the group game. Most changes resulting from group play were generally maintained over a relatively short period of time in the post-test condition. Results are interpreted with respect to the importance of the influence of the peer group on children's gambling behavior. Future directions for research are suggested.

Parents' attitudes, knowledge, and behavior toward youth gambling: a five-year follow-up

This study compares the attitudes, knowledge, and behavior of parents of 5- to 17-year-old children regarding youth gambling. This information was obtained through two telephone surveys conducted in 1995, and 5 years later in 2000, in the Québec City area. Survey 1, in 1995, was conducted on 279 respondents, while survey 2, in 2000, was carried out with 213 respondents. Results showed a number of changes in parents' attitudes, behavior, and knowledge concerning youth gambling: For example, parents' perception of the age of onset of gambling behavior had improved slightly at the end of the 5-year period. Furthermore, parents were more satisfied with government limitation of access to gambling, and more accurately informed about legal aspects of the sale of lottery tickets. However, the percentage of parents who failed to associate youth gambling with some of its correlates (arcade attendance, parental gambling problems, and friendship with gamblers) increased from 1995 to year 2000. The improvements that were observed suggested that parents had benefited from media-transmitted information during this period. However, the deterioration of some parental attitudes, and the stability of other variables, suggest that it is still important to educate parents about youth gambling, and to design interventions adapted to parents' needs.