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Kalashgrani MY, Mousavi SM, Akmal MH, Gholami A, Omidifar N, Chiang WH, Lai CW, Ripaj Uddin M, Althomali RH, Rahman MM. Biosensors for metastatic cancer cell detection. Clin Chim Acta 2024; 559:119685. [PMID: 38663472 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2024.119685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024]
Abstract
Early detection and effective cancer treatment are critical to improving metastatic cancer cell diagnosis and management today. In particular, accurate qualitative diagnosis of metastatic cancer cell represents an important step in the diagnosis of cancer. Today, biosensors have been widely developed due to the daily need to measure different chemical and biological species. Biosensors are utilized to quantify chemical and biological phenomena by generating signals that are directly proportional to the quantity of the analyte present in the reaction. Biosensors are widely used in disease control, drug delivery, infection detection, detection of pathogenic microorganisms, and markers that indicate a specific disease in the body. These devices have been especially popular in the field of metastatic cancer cell diagnosis and treatment due to their portability, high sensitivity, high specificity, ease of use and short response time. This article examines biosensors for metastatic cancer cells. It also studies metastatic cancer cells and the mechanism of metastasis. Finally, the function of biosensors and biomarkers in metastatic cancer cells is investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
| | - Muhammad Hussnain Akmal
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
| | - Ahmad Gholami
- Biotechnology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Science, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Navid Omidifar
- Department of Pathology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 71468-64685, Iran
| | - Wei-Hung Chiang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan.
| | - Chin Wei Lai
- Nanotechnology and Catalysis Research Centre (NANOCAT), Level 3, Block A, Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Universiti Malaya (UM), 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Md Ripaj Uddin
- Institute of National Analytical Research and Service (INARS), Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhanmondi, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Raed H Althomali
- Department of Chemistry, College of Art and Science, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Wadi Al-Dawasir 11991, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed M Rahman
- Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) & Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
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Basan M, Risler T, Joanny JF, Sastre-Garau X, Prost J. Homeostatic competition drives tumor growth and metastasis nucleation. HFSP JOURNAL 2009; 3:265-72. [PMID: 20119483 DOI: 10.2976/1.3086732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2008] [Accepted: 01/27/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We propose a mechanism for tumor growth emphasizing the role of homeostatic regulation and tissue stability. We show that competition between surface and bulk effects leads to the existence of a critical size that must be overcome by metastases to reach macroscopic sizes. This property can qualitatively explain the observed size distributions of metastases, while size-independent growth rates cannot account for clinical and experimental data. In addition, it potentially explains the observed preferential growth of metastases on tissue surfaces and membranes such as the pleural and peritoneal layers, suggests a mechanism underlying the seed and soil hypothesis introduced by Stephen Paget in 1889, and yields realistic values for metastatic inefficiency. We propose a number of key experiments to test these concepts. The homeostatic pressure as introduced in this work could constitute a quantitative, experimentally accessible measure for the metastatic potential of early malignant growths.
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Abstract
Metastasis is an enormously complex process that remains to be a major problem in the management of cancer. The fact that cancer patients might develop metastasis after years or even decades from diagnosis of the primary tumor makes the metastatic process even more complex. Over the years many hypotheses were developed to try to explain the inefficiency of the metastatic process, but none of these theories completely explains the current biological and clinical observations. In this review we summarize some of the proposed models that were developed in attempt to understand the mechanisms of tumor dissemination and colonization as well as metastatic progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kent W Hunter
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4264, USA.
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4
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BRMS1 suppresses breast cancer metastasis in multiple experimental models of metastasis by reducing solitary cell survival and inhibiting growth initiation. Clin Exp Metastasis 2008; 25:727-40. [DOI: 10.1007/s10585-008-9184-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Accepted: 05/16/2008] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Lyons JG, Lobo E, Martorana AM, Myerscough MR. Clonal diversity in carcinomas: its implications for tumour progression and the contribution made to it by epithelial-mesenchymal transitions. Clin Exp Metastasis 2007; 25:665-77. [PMID: 18071912 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-007-9134-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2007] [Accepted: 11/26/2007] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The progression of tumours to malignancy is commonly considered to arise through lineal evolution, a process in which mutations conferring pro-oncogenic cellular phenotypes are acquired by a succession of ever-more dominant clones. However, this model is at odds with the persistent polyclonality observed in many cancers. We propose that an alternative mechanism for tumour progression, called interclonal cooperativity, is likely to play a role at stages of tumour progression when mutations cause microenvironmental changes, such as occur with epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMTs). Interclonal cooperativity occurs when cancer cell-cancer cell interactions produce an emergent malignant phenotype from individually non-malignant clones. In interclonal cooperativity, the oncogenic mutations occur in different clones within the tumour that complement each other and cooperate in order to drive progression. This reconciles the accepted genetic and evolutionary basis of cancers with the observed polyclonality in tumours. Here, we provide a conceptual basis for examining the importance of cancer cell-cancer cell interactions to the behaviour of tumours and propose specific mechanisms by which clonal diversity in tumours, including that provided by EMTs, can drive the progression of tumours to malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Guy Lyons
- Sydney Head & Neck Cancer Institute, Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
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6
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Wilson SM, Chambers AF. Experimental Metastasis Assays in the Chick Embryo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; Chapter 19:Unit 19.6. [DOI: 10.1002/0471143030.cb1906s21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Hunter KW. Allelic diversity in the host genetic background may be an important determinant in tumor metastatic dissemination. Cancer Lett 2003; 200:97-105. [PMID: 14568162 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3835(03)00420-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis, the spread and growth of tumors at secondary sites, is an extremely important clinical event, since the majority of cancer mortality is associated with the metastatic tumors rather than the primary tumor. In spite of the importance of metastasis in the clinical setting, the actual process is extremely inefficient. Millions of tumor cells can be shed into the vasculature daily yet few secondary tumors are formed. To successfully colonize a distant site tumor cells must overcome a series of barriers. Failure to complete any single step in the metastatic cascade abrogates the ability to form a secondary lesion. A variety of theories have been proposed to explain the inefficiency of the metastatic process. The most commonly accepted, the progression theory, posits a series of random mutational occurs within a primary tumor to generate a small subpopulation that acquires full metastatic capability. While significant evidence supports this model, recent discoveries demonstrating the ability to predict metastatic propensity from gene expression profiles in bulk tumor tissue are not consistent with only a small subpopulation of cells in the primary tumor acquiring metastatic ability. A second theory of metastatic inefficiency, the transient compartment theory, is more consistent with the microarray data, but does not completely explain observations like metastasis associated loss-of-heterozygosity events. To reconcile the observed results additional variables need to be added to the model of metastatic inefficiency. One possible variable that might explain the discrepancies is genetic background effects. Studies have demonstrated that the genetic background a tumor arises on can have significant affects on the ability of the tumor to metastasize and on gene expression profiles. Thus the observations could be reconciled by combining the theories, with genetic background influencing both metastatic efficiency and predictive gene expression profiles, upon which subsequently occur metastasis-promoting mutational and epigenetic events. If the genetic background is an important determinant of metastatic efficiency it would have significant implications for the clinical prediction and treatment of metastatic disease, as well as for the design of potential prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kent W Hunter
- Laboratory of Population Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Building 41, Room D702, 41 Library Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-5060, USA.
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MacDonald IC, Groom AC, Chambers AF. Cancer spread and micrometastasis development: quantitative approaches for in vivo models. Bioessays 2002; 24:885-93. [PMID: 12325121 DOI: 10.1002/bies.10156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Death from cancer is usually due to metastasis. Fortunately, most cells that escape from a primary tumor fail to form metastases. Identifying reasons for this failure will help development of anti-metastatic therapies. Intravital videomicroscopy (IVVM) can be used to observe cancer cells injected into live animals. Co-injected microspheres can be used to assess cell survival. These techniques have been used to show that circulating tumor cells generally arrest in the microcirculation and may extravasate with high efficiency. While many tumor cells may survive in a secondary site, only a small subset form micrometastases and only a subset of these micrometastases persist to form vascularized macrometastases. Furthermore, solitary tumor cells may remain dormant for long periods of time in secondary sites. These findings suggest that metastatic growth and angiogenesis are prime targets for anti-metastatic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian C MacDonald
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
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Naumov GN, MacDonald IC, Chambers AF, Groom AC. Solitary cancer cells as a possible source of tumour dormancy? Semin Cancer Biol 2001; 11:271-6. [PMID: 11513562 DOI: 10.1006/scbi.2001.0382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis can occur many years after primary tumour treatment. However, the status of the tumour during this period of dormancy is poorly understood. As part of our ongoing experimental studies on mechanisms of metastasis, we have discovered that large numbers of disseminated single cells may persist in secondary sites for extended time periods. Identification of these cells was facilitated by in vivo techniques developed to quantify the fate of individual cells during the metastatic process. Here we review these in vivo techniques and findings. We also discuss the potential clinical implications if dormant solitary cells exist in appreciable numbers in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- G N Naumov
- Medical Biophysics Department, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5C1
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Gervasoni JE, Taneja C, Chung MA, Cady B. Biologic and clinical significance of lymphadenectomy. Surg Clin North Am 2000; 80:1631-73. [PMID: 11140865 DOI: 10.1016/s0039-6109(05)70253-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Interest in the lymphatic system and its relationship to metastases has developed owing to renewed interest in sentinel node biopsy. This article summarizes the anatomy, physiology, and biology of the lymphatic system and lymph node metastases, and reviews studies of lymph node metastases and surgical resection of cancers in different anatomic sites. On the basis of these studies, the authors conclude that lymph node metastasis functions as an indicator of prognosis, not the controlling or determining factor of prognosis. Thus, varying degrees of treatment of regional lymph nodes and metastases do not seem to be controlling factors in the outcome of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Gervasoni
- Department of Surgery, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson School of Medicine, Piscataway, USA
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Chambers AF, MacDonald IC, Schmidt EE, Morris VL, Groom AC. Clinical targets for anti-metastasis therapy. Adv Cancer Res 2000; 79:91-121. [PMID: 10818678 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(00)79003-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis is responsible for most cancer deaths. Therapeutic strategies to prevent development of metastases thus have potential to impact on cancer mortality. Development of these therapies requires a better understanding of the biology and molecular events of the metastatic process. Metastasis is usually defined, clinically and experimentally, by evidence of the endpoint of the process, that is, the presence of metastatic tumors. Endpoint assays are suitable for determining if a therapeutic approach is effective, but can provide little information on how a treatment works in vivo and what steps in metastasis are affected. We describe here two methodological advances in the study of metastasis as a process: in vivo videomicroscopy, which permits direct observation of steps in metastasis, and a "cell accounting" technique that permits quantification of the fate of cells over time. These procedures have provided new and unexpected insights into the biology of the metastatic process. Based on these insights, we consider which steps in the metastatic process are biologically and clinically most appropriate as therapeutic targets for development of anti-metastasis therapies. We conclude that the most promising stage of the metastasis process for therapeutic targeting is the growth phase, after cancer cells have arrested in the microcirculation in secondary sites and have completed extravasation. Earlier phases in the process are either biologically inappropriate or clinically inaccessible, except in specific cases (e.g., chemoprevention strategies). The role of "seed" and "soil" in determining organ-specific metastasis is also discussed. The metastatic growth phase fortunately is a clinically broad target, and any treatment that limits growth of metastases prior to their causing irreversible harm to the patient has the potential to be clinically useful. A variety of therapeutic approaches to target this phase are under active development, including inhibition of angiogenesis or signal transduction pathways needed to support the growth of metastatic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A F Chambers
- Department of Oncology, University of Western Ontario, Canada.
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Li CY, Shan S, Huang Q, Braun RD, Lanzen J, Hu K, Lin P, Dewhirst MW. Initial stages of tumor cell-induced angiogenesis: evaluation via skin window chambers in rodent models. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92:143-7. [PMID: 10639516 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/92.2.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a paucity of information about events that follow immediately after tumor cells are triggered to initiate the process of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels). Such information is relevant to the issue of when micrometastases vascularize and has implications for the accessibility of micrometastases to various treatments. In this study, we attempted to monitor events at the initiation of angiogenesis at the earliest possible stage of tumor growth in vivo. METHODS Two different rodent mammary tumor cell lines, R3230Ac from the Fischer 344 rat and 4T1 from the BALB/c mouse, were stably transfected with a gene that encodes an enhanced version of green fluorescence protein (GFP). GFP-labeled R3230Ac or 4T1 cells (about 20-50 cells) were implanted into dorsal skinfold window chambers of Fischer 344 rats or BALB/c mice, respectively. Tumor angiogenesis was then monitored serially and noninvasively for up to 4 weeks. RESULTS Clear evidence of modification of the host vasculature was observed when tumor mass reached approximately 60-80 cells, and functional new blood vessels were seen when tumor mass reached roughly 100-300 cells. Individual tumor cells exhibited a chemotaxis-like growth pattern toward the pre-existing host vasculature. When ex-flk1 (a soluble, truncated vascular endothelial cell growth factor receptor protein known to be antiangiogenic) was injected with the tumor cells, the initial angiogenic and tumor growth activities were inhibited considerably, indicating that angiogenesis inhibitors may halt tumor growth even before the onset of angiogenesis. CONCLUSION Angiogenesis induced by tumor cells after implantation in the host begins at a very early stage, i.e., when the tumor mass contains roughly 100-300 cells. Identification of chemotactic signals that initiate tumor cell migration toward the existing vasculature may provide valuable targets for preventing tumor progression and/or metastases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Division
- Disease Models, Animal
- Female
- Green Fluorescent Proteins
- Indicators and Reagents
- Luminescent Proteins
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/metabolism
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/pathology
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred F344
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptors, Growth Factor/metabolism
- Receptors, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
- Skin Neoplasms/blood supply
- Skin Neoplasms/metabolism
- Skin Neoplasms/pathology
- Skin Window Technique
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- C Y Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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Chambers AF, Naumov GN, Vantyghem SA, Tuck AB. Molecular biology of breast cancer metastasis. Clinical implications of experimental studies on metastatic inefficiency. Breast Cancer Res 2000; 2:400-7. [PMID: 11250733 PMCID: PMC138662 DOI: 10.1186/bcr86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2000] [Revised: 02/10/2000] [Accepted: 03/20/2000] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent technological advances have led to an increasing ability to detect isolated tumour cells and groups of tumour cells in patients' blood, lymph nodes or bone marrow. However, the clinical significance of these cells is unclear. Should they be considered as evidence of metastasis, necessitating aggressive treatment, or are they in some cases unrelated to clinical outcome? Quantitative experimental studies on the basic biology of metastatic inefficiency are providing clues that may help in understanding the significance of these cells. This understanding will be of use in guiding clinical studies to assess the significance of isolated tumour cells and micrometastases in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- A F Chambers
- London Regional Cancer Centre, London, Ontario, Canada.
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Rao VH, Singh RK, Finnell RH, Dave BJ, Beuhler BA, Sanger WG, Schaefer GB. Matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in tumor invasion and metastasis. J CHEM SCI 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02869913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Mitsiades N, Poulaki V, Kotoula V, Leone A, Tsokos M. Fas ligand is present in tumors of the Ewing's sarcoma family and is cleaved into a soluble form by a metalloproteinase. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 1998; 153:1947-56. [PMID: 9846984 PMCID: PMC1866328 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)65708-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Fas ligand (FasL) exists in transmembrane and soluble forms and induces apoptosis on cross-linking with the Fas receptor. We evaluated the biological significance of FasL and Fas in 61 tumor tissues and 9 cell lines of the Ewing's sarcoma family of tumors (ESFT). FasL was present in 62.5% and Fas in 79.4% of primary ESFT. Metastatic tumors had higher expression of FasL (95%), suggesting association with a metastatic phenotype. FasL was detected in the cytoplasm and membrane of ESFT cells by immunofluorescence. Western blotting revealed transmembrane and soluble FasL in cytosolic extracts and soluble FasL in conditioned media. Both transmembrane and soluble FasL induced apoptosis of Fas-sensitive Jurkat cells in co-culture experiments with ESFT cells or their media. Treatment with phenanthroline and the synthetic metalloproteinase inhibitor BB-3103 reduced the levels of soluble FasL in the media, suggesting that in ESFT, FasL is processed by a metalloproteinase and released in the extracellular milieu. The released soluble FasL may serve to attack cells of the immune system and/or interfere with the binding of transmembrane FasL with Fas, and results in down-regulation of transmembrane FasL. Synthetic metalloproteinase inhibitors may modify the ratio of transmembrane to soluble FasL.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Mitsiades
- Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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Luzzi KJ, MacDonald IC, Schmidt EE, Kerkvliet N, Morris VL, Chambers AF, Groom AC. Multistep nature of metastatic inefficiency: dormancy of solitary cells after successful extravasation and limited survival of early micrometastases. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 1998; 153:865-73. [PMID: 9736035 PMCID: PMC1853000 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)65628-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 831] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In cancer metastasis, only a small percentage of cells released from a primary tumor successfully form distant lesions, but it is uncertain at which steps in the process cells are lost. Our goal was to determine what proportions of B16F1 melanoma cells injected intraportally to target mouse liver 1) survive and extravasate, 2) form micrometastases (4 to 16 cells) by day 3, 3) develop into macroscopic tumors by day 13, and 4) remain as solitary dormant cells. Using in vivo videomicroscopy, a novel cell accounting assay, and immunohistochemical markers for proliferation (Ki-67) and apoptosis (TUNEL), we found that 1) 80% of injected cells survived in the liver microcirculation and extravasated by day 3, 2) only a small subset of extravasated cells began to grow, with 1 in 40 forming micrometastases by day 3, 3) only a small subset of micrometastases continued to grow, with 1 in 100 progressing to form macroscopic tumors by day 13 (in fact, most micrometastases disappeared), and 4) 36% of injected cells remained by day 13 as solitary cancer cells, most of which were dormant (proliferation, 2%; apoptosis, 3%; in contrast to cells within macroscopic tumors: proliferation, 91%; apoptosis/necrosis, 6%). Thus, in this model, metastatic inefficiency is principally determined by two distinct aspects of cell growth after extravasation: failure of solitary cells to initiate growth and failure of early micrometastases to continue growth into macroscopic tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Luzzi
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Western Ontario, London Regional Cancer Centre, Canada
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Welch
- The Jake Gittlen Cancer Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, The Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey 17033-0850, USA.
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Morris VL, Koop S, MacDonald IC, Schmidt EE, Grattan M, Percy D, Chambers AF, Groom AC. Mammary carcinoma cell lines of high and low metastatic potential differ not in extravasation but in subsequent migration and growth. Clin Exp Metastasis 1994; 12:357-67. [PMID: 7923988 DOI: 10.1007/bf01755879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
We examined the extravasation and subsequent migration and growth of murine mammary tumor cell lines (D2A1 and D2.OR) which differ in their metastatic ability in lung and liver, invasiveness in vitro and expression of the cysteine proteinase cathepsin L. In light of the differences in invasiveness and cathepsin L expression, we hypothesized that during hematogenous metastasis the two cell lines would differ primarily in their ability to extravasate. We used in vivo videomicroscopy of mouse liver and chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane to examine the process and timing of extravasation and subsequent steps in metastasis for these cell lines. In contrast to our expectations, no differences were found between the cell lines in either the timing or mechanism of extravasation, at least 95% of cells having extravasated by 3 days after injection. However, after extravasation, the more metastatic and invasive D2A1 cells showed a greater ability to migrate to sites which favor tumor growth and to replicate to form micrometastases. These studies point to post-extravasation events (migration and growth) as being critical in metastasis formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Morris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
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Morris VL, MacDonald IC, Koop S, Schmidt EE, Chambers AF, Groom AC. Early interactions of cancer cells with the microvasculature in mouse liver and muscle during hematogenous metastasis: videomicroscopic analysis. Clin Exp Metastasis 1993; 11:377-90. [PMID: 8375113 DOI: 10.1007/bf00132981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Biomechanical interactions of cancer cells with the microvasculature were studied using high resolution intravital videomicroscopy. We compared initial arrest of murine B16F10 melanoma and D2A1 mammary carcinoma cells fluorescently labelled with calcein-AM, in low pressure (liver) vs high pressure (cremaster muscle) microvascular beds. Cells were arrested due to size restriction at the inflow side of the microcirculation, penetrating further and becoming more deformed in muscle than liver [median length to width ratios of 3.3 vs 1.3 for D2A1 cells, and 2.5 vs 1.2 for B16F10, at 1 min post-injection (p.i.)]. During the next 2 h many cells became stretched, giving maximum length to width ratios of 68 vs 22.1 (D2A1) and 28 vs 5.6 (B16F10) in muscle vs liver. Ethidium bromide exclusion demonstrated that over 97% of the cells maintained membrane integrity for > 2 h p.i. (In contrast, when an acridine orange labelling procedure was used, membrane disruption of B16F10 cells occurred within 15 min p.i.) Our experiments do not indicate the ultimate fate of the cancer cells, but if cell lysis occurs it must be on a time scale of hours rather than minutes. We report a process of 'clasmatosis' in cancer cells arrested in the microcirculation: large membrane-enclosed fragments (> 3 microns in diameter) became 'pinched off' from arrested cells, in both liver and muscle, often within minutes or even seconds of arrest. The significance of this process is not yet understood. In this study intravital videomicroscopy has thus provided a valuable clarification of the interactions of cancer cells with vessel walls during metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Morris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
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MacDonald IC, Schmidt EE, Morris VL, Chambers AF, Groom AC. Intravital videomicroscopy of the chorioallantoic microcirculation: a model system for studying metastasis. Microvasc Res 1992; 44:185-99. [PMID: 1474926 DOI: 10.1016/0026-2862(92)90079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The chick embryo is a useful model for studying hematogenous metastasis. Cancer cells injected into veins of the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) circulate briefly through all tissues but form metastases predominantly in the CAM. This respiratory organ is particularly suitable for intravital microscope because of its accessibility without the need for surgery and the density and planar configuration of its vessels (which we confirmed by microcorrosion casting). Using an inverted microscope with oblique transillumination for high-resolution images and epifluorescence to identify labeled B16F1 melanoma cells, we studied successive stages of metastasis formation in the CAM in vivo. By 2 min postinjection (pi) all cancer cells had become arrested within the microvasculature. This initial arrest appeared to be due to size restriction, based on measurements of cell and vessel diameters. At 15-60 min pi, trapped cells were seen in tapering arterioles (27%), orifices from arterioles to the capillary plexus (61%), or in the plexus itself (12%). Some cells had extravasated into the underlying mesenchyme by 3 hr (pi), and at 24 hr all cancer cells had completed this process. The mean rate of migration out of capillary lumens was approximately 1 micron/hr. Micrometastases grew in a planar configuration just beneath the capillary plexus, with a cell doubling time of approximately 24 hr. Our technique is also applicable to other tumor types and host animals and provides a powerful tool to complement studies on the molecular basis of metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- I C MacDonald
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
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Koropatnick J, Pearson J. Zinc treatment, metallothionein expression, and resistance to cisplatin in mouse melanoma cells. SOMATIC CELL AND MOLECULAR GENETICS 1990; 16:529-37. [PMID: 2267627 DOI: 10.1007/bf01233093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Metallothioneins (MTs) protect cells from the toxic effects of heavy metals. It has been suggested that they play a role in cellular resistance to alkylating agents and ionizing radiation because of the coincidence of cadmium- and drug-resistance and by virtue of the reactivity of MT with free radicals. We report the analysis of mouse B16 melanoma cell lines with high and low constitutive MT expression. In these cells, both cisplatin and cadmium resistance were associated with constitutive MT accumulation in the absence of heavy-metal induction. However, in cells with high constitutive MT expression (where zinc treatment did not induce increased MT expression), cisplatin resistance, but not cadmium resistance, was increased approximately twofold by zinc treatment. Methotrexate resistance also was increased by zinc treatment in some cases. We conclude that MT is associated with cisplatin resistance, but that effects of heavy-metal treatment other than MT induction are also responsible for cisplatin and methotrexate, but not cadmium, resistance.
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Kerbel
- Mt. Sinai Hospital Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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23
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Abstract
Metastasis is a complex non-stochastic process that is most likely the result of genetic and epigenetic interactions of a wide variety of genes. The search for a single gene which can encompass such a pleiotropic response as to account for the observed phenotypic characteristics of metastatic tumour populations has been unsuccessful. Particular studies involving gene transfection, subtractive hybridisation and cell fusion are beginning to identify specific genes which contribute to metastasis in some cell types. However, such analyses are complicated by the inherent genetic instability and phenotypic heterogeneity present in tumour populations. A more detailed understanding of the metastatic process may require an abandoning of current generalised approaches to metastasis in favour of concentrating on key components of the metastatic cascade such as adhesion and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- T N Dear
- Department of Medicine, University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, N.S.W., Australia
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