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Lv X, Jiao C, Chen Y, Chen L, Li X, Liu X, Yang D, Zhao J. Characteristic and antibacterial effect of a histone H2A and its preliminary roles in extracellular traps in manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 131:77-83. [PMID: 36195271 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2022.09.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, a histone H2A (designed as RpH2A) was identified and characterized from clam Ruditapes philippinarum, and its open reading frame (ORF) was of 387 bp encoding a polypeptide of 128 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence of RpH2A shared high identities ranging from 57.1% to 96.1% with that of other identified H2A. The mRNA expression of RpH2A was up-regulated significantly after Vibrio anguillarum challenge. The recombinant RpH2A protein (rRpH2A) displayed significantly binding affinity to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and peptidoglycan (PGN) in vitro, and also exhibited antimicrobial properties against Escherichia coli. In addition, the antimicrobial RpH2A was shown to co-localize with extracellular traps (ETs) released from hemocytes induced by E. coli, suggesting that RpH2A might contribute to eliminate invading bacteria in clam ETs. Altogether, our data revealed that RpH2A could function as antimicrobial peptides, which might play a crucial role in the immune responses of hemocytes ETs in clams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojing Lv
- Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China; Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Chunli Jiao
- Yantai Center for Food and Drug Control, Yantai, 264003, PR China
| | - Yuying Chen
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Marine Ecological Restoration, Shandong Marine Resources and Environment Research Institute, Yantai, 264006, PR China
| | - Lizhu Chen
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Marine Ecological Restoration, Shandong Marine Resources and Environment Research Institute, Yantai, 264006, PR China
| | - Xuan Li
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Marine Ecological Restoration, Shandong Marine Resources and Environment Research Institute, Yantai, 264006, PR China
| | - Xiangquan Liu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Marine Ecological Restoration, Shandong Marine Resources and Environment Research Institute, Yantai, 264006, PR China
| | - Dinglong Yang
- Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China; Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China; Center for Ocean Mega-science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071, PR China.
| | - Jianmin Zhao
- Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China; Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China; Center for Ocean Mega-science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071, PR China
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Lopez-Tello J, Jimenez-Martinez MA, Salazar-Petres E, Patel R, George AL, Kay RG, Sferruzzi-Perri AN. Identification of Structural and Molecular Signatures Mediating Adaptive Changes in the Mouse Kidney in Response to Pregnancy. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:6287. [PMID: 35682969 PMCID: PMC9181623 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pregnancy is characterized by adaptations in the function of several maternal body systems that ensure the development of the fetus whilst maintaining health of the mother. The renal system is responsible for water and electrolyte balance, as well as waste removal. Thus, it is imperative that structural and functional changes occur in the kidney during pregnancy. However, our knowledge of the precise morphological and molecular mechanisms occurring in the kidney during pregnancy is still very limited. Here, we investigated the changes occurring in the mouse kidney during pregnancy by performing an integrated analysis involving histology, gene and protein expression assays, mass spectrometry profiling and bioinformatics. Data from non-pregnant and pregnant mice were used to identify critical signalling pathways mediating changes in the maternal kidneys. We observed an expansion of renal medulla due to proliferation and infiltration of interstitial cellular constituents, as well as alterations in the activity of key cellular signalling pathways (e.g., AKT, AMPK and MAPKs) and genes involved in cell growth/metabolism (e.g., Cdc6, Foxm1 and Rb1) in the kidneys during pregnancy. We also generated plasma and urine proteomic profiles, identifying unique proteins in pregnancy. These proteins could be used to monitor and study potential mechanisms of renal adaptations during pregnancy and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Lopez-Tello
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
| | | | - Esteban Salazar-Petres
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
| | - Ritik Patel
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
| | - Amy L George
- Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Richard G Kay
- Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Amanda N Sferruzzi-Perri
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
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Targeting Chromatin Complexes in Myeloid Malignancies and Beyond: From Basic Mechanisms to Clinical Innovation. Cells 2020; 9:cells9122721. [PMID: 33371192 PMCID: PMC7767226 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The aberrant function of chromatin regulatory networks (epigenetics) is a hallmark of cancer promoting oncogenic gene expression. A growing body of evidence suggests that the disruption of specific chromatin-associated protein complexes has therapeutic potential in malignant conditions, particularly those that are driven by aberrant chromatin modifiers. Of note, a number of enzymatic inhibitors that block the catalytic function of histone modifying enzymes have been established and entered clinical trials. Unfortunately, many of these molecules do not have potent single-agent activity. One potential explanation for this phenomenon is the fact that those drugs do not profoundly disrupt the integrity of the aberrant network of multiprotein complexes on chromatin. Recent advances in drug development have led to the establishment of novel inhibitors of protein–protein interactions as well as targeted protein degraders that may provide inroads to longstanding effort to physically disrupt oncogenic multiprotein complexes on chromatin. In this review, we summarize some of the current concepts on the role epigenetic modifiers in malignant chromatin states with a specific focus on myeloid malignancies and recent advances in early-phase clinical trials.
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Pérez-Martínez ME, Benet M, Alepuz P, Tordera V. Nut1/Hos1 and Sas2/Rpd3 control the H3 acetylation of two different sets of osmotic stress-induced genes. Epigenetics 2019; 15:251-271. [PMID: 31512982 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2019.1664229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Epigenetic information is able to interact with the cellular environment and could be especially useful for reprograming gene expression in response to a physiological perturbation. In fact the genes induced or repressed by osmotic stress undergo significant changes in terms of the levels of various histone modifications, especially in the acetylation levels of histone H3. Exposing yeast to high osmolarity results in the activation of stress-activated protein kinase Hog1, which plays a central role in gene expression control. We evaluated the connection between the presence of Hog1 and changes in histone H3 acetylation in stress-regulated genes. We found a parallel increase in the acetylation of lysines 9 and 14 of H3 in induced genes during stress, which was largely dependent on Hog1 at the genome-wide level. Conversely, we observed that acetylation decreased in repressed genes and was not dependent on Hog1. However, lack of Hog1 sometimes produced different, and even opposite, effects on the induction and acetylation of H3 of each gene. We also found that the acetylation state of lysine 9 of H3 was altered in the strains deficient in Nut1 HAT and Hos1 HDAC in the genes up-regulated during osmotic stress in an Msn2/Msn4-independent manner, while lysine 9 acetylation of H3 varied in the strains deficient in Sas2 HAT and Rpd3 HDAC for the Msn2/Msn4-dependent induced genes. The results presented here show new, unexpected participants in gene regulation processes in response to environmental perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- María E Pérez-Martínez
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular and ERI Biotecmed, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Marta Benet
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular and ERI Biotecmed, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Paula Alepuz
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular and ERI Biotecmed, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Vicente Tordera
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular and ERI Biotecmed, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
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Vicente-Muñoz S, Romero P, Magraner-Pardo L, Martinez-Jimenez CP, Tordera V, Pamblanco M. Comprehensive analysis of interacting proteins and genome-wide location studies of the Sas3-dependent NuA3 histone acetyltransferase complex. FEBS Open Bio 2014; 4:996-1006. [PMID: 25473596 PMCID: PMC4248121 DOI: 10.1016/j.fob.2014.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We characterise Sas3p and Gcn5p active HAT complexes in WT and deleted TAP-strains. We confirm that Pdp3p interacts with NuA3, histones and chromatin regulators. Pdp3p MS-analysis reveals its phosphorylation, ubiquitination and methylation. Sas3p can substitute Gcn5p in acetylation of histone H3K14 but not of H3K9. Genome-wide profiling of Sas3p supports its involvement in transcriptional elongation.
Histone acetylation affects several aspects of gene regulation, from chromatin remodelling to gene expression, by modulating the interplay between chromatin and key transcriptional regulators. The exact molecular mechanism underlying acetylation patterns and crosstalk with other epigenetic modifications requires further investigation. In budding yeast, these epigenetic markers are produced partly by histone acetyltransferase enzymes, which act as multi-protein complexes. The Sas3-dependent NuA3 complex has received less attention than other histone acetyltransferases (HAT), such as Gcn5-dependent complexes. Here, we report our analysis of Sas3p-interacting proteins using tandem affinity purification (TAP), coupled with mass spectrometry. This analysis revealed Pdp3p, a recently described component of NuA3, to be one of the most abundant Sas3p-interacting proteins. The PDP3 gene, was TAP-tagged and protein complex purification confirmed that Pdp3p co-purified with the NuA3 protein complex, histones, and several transcription-related and chromatin remodelling proteins. Our results also revealed that the protein complexes associated with Sas3p presented HAT activity even in the absence of Gcn5p and vice versa. We also provide evidence that Sas3p cannot substitute Gcn5p in acetylation of lysine 9 in histone H3 in vivo. Genome-wide occupancy of Sas3p using ChIP-on-chip tiled microarrays showed that Sas3p was located preferentially within the 5′-half of the coding regions of target genes, indicating its probable involvement in the transcriptional elongation process. Hence, this work further characterises the function and regulation of the NuA3 complex by identifying novel post-translational modifications in Pdp3p, additional Pdp3p-co-purifying chromatin regulatory proteins involved in chromatin-modifying complex dynamics and gene regulation, and a subset of genes whose transcriptional elongation is controlled by this complex.
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Key Words
- ChIP-on-chip
- ChIP-on-chip, chromatin immunoprecipitation with genome-wide location arrays
- Chromatin
- HAT, histone acetyltransferase
- Histones
- NuA3, nucleosomal acetyltransferase of histone H3
- PTM, post-translational modification
- Pdp3
- RNAPII, RNA polymerase II
- SAGA, Spt-Ada-Gcn acetyltransferase
- TAP, tandem affinity purification
- TAP–MS strategy
- TSS, transcription start site
- WCE, whole cell extract
- WT, wild-type
- Yeast
- nt, nucleotide
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Vicente-Muñoz
- Structural Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe (CIPF), Eduardo Primo Yúfera, 3, 46012 València, Spain
| | - Paco Romero
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, C/Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Lorena Magraner-Pardo
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, C/Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Celia P Martinez-Jimenez
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, C/Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Vicente Tordera
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, C/Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Mercè Pamblanco
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, C/Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
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Magraner-Pardo L, Pelechano V, Coloma MD, Tordera V. Dynamic remodeling of histone modifications in response to osmotic stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:247. [PMID: 24678875 PMCID: PMC3986647 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Specific histone modifications play important roles in chromatin functions; i.e., activation or repression of gene transcription. This participation must occur as a dynamic process. Nevertheless, most of the histone modification maps reported to date provide only static pictures that link certain modifications with active or silenced states. This study, however, focuses on the global histone modification variation that occurs in response to the transcriptional reprogramming produced by a physiological perturbation in yeast. Results We did a genome-wide chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis for eight specific histone modifications before and after saline stress. The most striking change was rapid acetylation loss in lysines 9 and 14 of H3 and in lysine 8 of H4, associated with gene repression. The genes activated by saline stress increased the acetylation levels at these same sites, but this acetylation process was quantitatively minor if compared to that of the deacetylation of repressed genes. The changes in the tri-methylation of lysines 4, 36 and 79 of H3 and the di-methylation of lysine 79 of H3 were slighter than those of acetylation. Furthermore, we produced new genome-wide maps for seven histone modifications, and we analyzed, for the first time in S. cerevisiae, the genome-wide profile of acetylation of lysine 8 of H4. Conclusions This research reveals that the short-term changes observed in the post-stress methylation of histones are much more moderate than those of acetylation, and that the dynamics of the acetylation state of histones during activation or repression of transcription is a much quicker process than methylation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-247) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Vicente Tordera
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, C/Dr, Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
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Rodriguez-Collazo P, Leuba SH, Zlatanova J. Robust methods for purification of histones from cultured mammalian cells with the preservation of their native modifications. Nucleic Acids Res 2009; 37:e81. [PMID: 19443446 PMCID: PMC2699528 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkp273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of histones play a role in modifying chromatin structure for DNA-templated processes in the eukaryotic nucleus, such as transcription, replication, recombination and repair; thus, histone PTMs are considered major players in the epigenetic control of these processes. Linking specific histone PTMs to gene expression is an arduous task requiring large amounts of highly purified and natively modified histones to be analyzed by various techniques. We have developed robust and complementary procedures, which use strong protein denaturing conditions and yield highly purified core and linker histones from unsynchronized proliferating, M-phase arrested and butyrate-treated cells, fully preserving their native PTMs without using enzyme inhibitors. Cell hypotonic swelling and lysis, nuclei isolation/washing and chromatin solubilization under mild conditions are bypassed to avoid compromising the integrity of histone native PTMs. As controls for our procedures, we tested the most widely used conventional methodologies and demonstrated that they indeed lead to drastic histone dephosphorylation. Additionally, we have developed methods for preserving acid-labile histone modifications by performing non-acid extractions to obtain highly purified H3 and H4. Importantly, isolation of histones H3, H4 and H2A/H2B is achieved without the use of HPLC. Functional supercoiling assays reveal that both hyper- and hypo-phosphorylated histones can be efficiently assembled into polynucleosomes. Notably, the preservation of fully phosphorylated mitotic histones and their assembly into polynucleosomes should open new avenues to investigate an important but overlooked question: the impact of mitotic phosphorylation in chromatin structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Rodriguez-Collazo
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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Rosaleny LE, Ruiz-García AB, García-Martínez J, Pérez-Ortín JE, Tordera V. The Sas3p and Gcn5p histone acetyltransferases are recruited to similar genes. Genome Biol 2008; 8:R119. [PMID: 17584493 PMCID: PMC2394765 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2007-8-6-r119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2006] [Revised: 03/20/2007] [Accepted: 06/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Specific histone modifications can perform several cellular functions, for example, as signals to recruit trans-acting factors and as modulators of chromatin structure. Acetylation of Lys14 of histone H3 is the main target of many histone acetyltransferases in vitro and may play a central role in the stability of the nucleosome. This study is focused on the genome-wide binding of Saccharomyces cerevisiae histone acetyltransferases that are specific for Lys14 of histone H3. RESULTS We have used a variation of the genome-wide location analysis method, based on a macroarray platform, to identify binding sites of yeast histone acetyltransferase catalytic subunits and to correlate their positions with acetylation of Lys14 of histone H3. Our results revealed that the histone acetyltransferases Sas3p and Gcn5p are recruited to a pool of intensely transcribed genes and that there is considerable overlap between the two cohorts of Sas3p and Gcn5p bound gene pools. We also demonstrate a positive correlation between binding sites of both proteins and the acetylation state of Lys14 of histone H3. Finally, a positive correlation between the decrease of H3 Lys14 acetylation in a GCN5 deleted strain and the Gcn5p genome occupancy is shown. CONCLUSION Our data support a model in which both Gcn5p and Sas3p act as general activators of an overlapping pool of intensely transcribed genes. Since both proteins preferentially acetylate Lys14 of histone H3, our data support the hypothesis that acetylation of this specific residue facilitates the action of the transcriptional apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena E Rosaleny
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, València. Spain
| | - Ana B Ruiz-García
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, València. Spain
| | - José García-Martínez
- Laboratori de Chips de DNA del Servei Central de Suport a la Investigació Experimental, Universitat de València, València
| | - José E Pérez-Ortín
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, València. Spain
| | - Vicente Tordera
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, València. Spain
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Karacalioglu AO, Yang DJ, Azhdarinia A, Mendez R, Oh C, Kohanim S, Chanda M, Greenwell AC, Yu DF, Kim EE. Radiolabeled L-lysine for tumor imaging. Acad Radiol 2006; 13:1327-37. [PMID: 17070450 DOI: 10.1016/j.acra.2006.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2006] [Revised: 03/07/2006] [Accepted: 03/07/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES The aims of this study were to label the versatile amino acid l-lysine with (99m)Tc using 2,3-dimercapto-succinic acid (DMSA) as a chelator, and to assess its tumor imaging feasibility under in vivo and in vitro conditions, and finally to determine the subcellular biodistribution of this radiopharmaceutical. MATERIALS AND METHODS DMSA-l-lysine was chemically synthesized and labeled with sodium pertechnetate. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectral analysis of DMSA-l-lysine were conducted. Radiochemical purity was determined by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and paper chromatography. Cellular uptake, competition and subcellular localization studies were performed in rat breast cancer cells (13762). In vivo studies of planar imaging and biodistribution studies were performed on female Fischer 344 rats. Medical Internal Radiation Dose (MIRD) dosimetry estimates were calculated. RESULTS Radiochemical purity (determined by radio-TLC and high-performance liquid chromatography) of these compounds was >95%. (99m)Tc-DMSA-l-lysine showed good uptake in in vitro cell culture assays and uptake was reduced in competition studies. (99m)Tc-DMSA-l-lysine accumulates in the nucleus as much as in the cytoplasm and it was also shown that accumulation of the (99m)Tc-DMSA-l-lysine in the nucleus increases as a function of a time. There was an increase in tumor-to-blood and tumor-to-muscle count density ratios. Tumor/background ratios were 5.75 at 1 hour and 6.87 at 2 hours. In vivo tissue distribution studies revealed that radiation dosimetry of blood-forming organs were within radiation dose limits. CONCLUSION DMSA-l-lysine kits can be labeled with (99m)Tc easily and efficiently, with high radiochemical purity and cost-effectiveness. In vitro cellular uptake and scintigraphic imaging studies demonstrated the pharmacokinetic distribution and feasibility of using (99m)Tc-DMSA-l-lysine for tumor imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alper O Karacalioglu
- Department of Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 57, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Rosaleny LE, Antúnez O, Ruiz-García AB, Pérez-Ortín JE, Tordera V. YeastHAT1andHAT2deletions have different life-span and transcriptome phenotypes. FEBS Lett 2005; 579:4063-8. [PMID: 16023114 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2005.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Revised: 06/07/2005] [Accepted: 06/11/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
HAT-B is a yeast histone acetyltransferase composed of Hat1, Hat2 and Hif1 proteins. We demonstrate that a hat2 mutant or a hat1hat2 double mutant, but not a hat1 mutant, have an extended life-span. Transcriptome analysis shows that the single hat mutants are not very different from wild type. However, the comparison of the hat1 and hat2 transcriptomes shows that they are different. The hat1hat2 double mutant shows a transcriptional phenotype similar to that of the hat1 mutant but strongly enhanced. These results indicate that Hat2p could have additional functions in the cell to those of Hat1p.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena E Rosaleny
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, Dr. Moliner 50, E46100 Burjassot, Spain
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Poveda A, Pamblanco M, Tafrov S, Tordera V, Sternglanz R, Sendra R. Hif1 is a component of yeast histone acetyltransferase B, a complex mainly localized in the nucleus. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:16033-43. [PMID: 14761951 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m314228200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Hat1 is the catalytic subunit of the only type B histone acetyltransferase known (HAT-B). The enzyme specifically acetylates lysine 12, and to a lesser extent lysine 5, of free, non-chromatin-bound histone H4. The complex is usually isolated with cytosolic fractions and is thought to be involved in chromatin assembly. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae HAT-B complex also contains Hat2, a protein stimulating Hat1 catalytic activity. We have now identified by two-hybrid experiments Hif1 as both a Hat1- and a histone H4-interacting protein. These interactions were dependent on HAT2, indicating a mediating role for Hat2. Biochemical fractionation and co-immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that Hif1 is a component of a yeast heterotrimeric HAT-B complex, in which Hat2 bridges Hat1 and Hif1 proteins. In contrast to Hat2, this novel subunit does not appear to regulate Hat1 enzymatic activity. Nevertheless, similarly to Hat1, Hif1 influences telomeric silencing. In a localization analysis by immunofluorescence microscopy on yeast strains expressing tagged versions of Hat1, Hat2, and Hif1, we have found that all three HAT-B proteins are mainly localized in the nucleus. Thus, we propose that the distinction between A- and B-type enzymes should henceforth be based on their capacity to acetylate histones bound to nucleosomes and not on their location within the cell. Finally, by Western blotting assays, we have not detected differences in the in vivo acetylation of H4 lysine 12 (acK12H4) between wild-type and hat1Delta, hat2Delta, or hif1Delta mutant strains, suggesting that the level of HAT-B-dependent acK12H4 may be very low under normal growth conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Poveda
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, C/Dr. Moliner 50. 46100-Burjassot (València) Spain
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12
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugh T Spotswood
- Chromatin and Gene Expression Group, Anatomy Department, University of Birmingham Medical School, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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14
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Abstract
Diverse post-translational modifications of histone amino termini represent an important epigenetic mechanism for the organisation of chromatin structure and the regulation of gene activity. Within the past two years, great progress has been made in understanding the functional implications of histone methylation; in particular through the characterisation of histone methyltransferases that direct the site-specific methylation of, for example, lysine 9 and lysine 4 positions in the histone H3 amino terminus. All known histone methyltransferases of this type contain the evolutionarily conserved SET domain and appear to be able to stimulate either gene repression or gene activation. Methylation of H3 Lys9 and Lys4 has been visualised in native chromatin, indicating opposite roles in structuring repressive or accessible chromatin domains. For example, at the mating-type loci in Schizosaccharomyces pombe, at pericentric heterochromatin and at the inactive X chromosome in mammals, striking differences between these distinct marks have been observed. H3 Lys9 methylation is also important to direct additional epigenetic signals such as DNA methylation--for example, in Neurospora crassa and in Arabidopsis thaliana. Together, the available data strongly establish histone lysine methylation as a central modification for the epigenetic organisation of eukaryotic genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Lachner
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, The Vienna Biocenter, Dr Bohrgasse 7, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
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Abstract
The enzyme-catalyzed acetylation of the N-terminal tail domains of core histones provides a rich potential source of epigenetic information. This may be used both to mediate transient changes in transcription, through modification of promoter-proximal nucleosomes, and for the longer-term maintenance and modulation of patterns of gene expression. The latter may be achieved by setting specific patterns of histone acetylation, perhaps involving acetylation of particular lysine residues, across relatively large chromatin domains. The histone acetylating and deacetylating enzymes (HATs and HDACs, respectively) can be targeted to specific regions of the genome and show varying degrees of substrate specificity, properties that are consistent with a role in maintaining a dynamic, acetylation-based epigenetic code. The code may be read (ie. exert a functional effect) either through non-histone proteins that bind in an acetylation-dependent manner, or through direct effects on chromatin structure. Recent evidence raises the interesting possibility that an acetylation-based code may operate through both mitosis and meiosis, providing a possible mechanism for germ-line transmission of epigenetic changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Turner
- Chromatin and Gene Expression Group, Anatomy Department University of Birmingham Medical School, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
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16
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Mahendra G, Kanungo MS. Age-related and steroid induced changes in the histones of the quail liver. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2000; 30:109-14. [PMID: 15374037 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4943(00)00042-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/1999] [Revised: 12/14/1999] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Histones were extracted from the liver of young, adult and old Japanese quails. Both linker and core histones were found to vary with age. An extra band, H3X, was found between H2A and H4. Its level is higher in young and old birds in comparison to that of the adult. H3X shows interesting changes under steroid induction. Its level is higher in progesterone administered young birds. In adult and old birds, it is higher in progesterone treated (P) and progesterone primed estradiol administered (P+E) birds, and lower in all estradiol (E) and estradiol primed progesterone administered (E+P) birds. The relative levels of H3X in the steroid administered birds also vary with age. Such changes may influence chromatin conformation and gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Mahendra
- Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India
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17
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Abstract
Histone proteins and the nucleosomes they form with DNA are the fundamental building blocks of eukaryotic chromatin. A diverse array of post-translational modifications that often occur on tail domains of these proteins has been well documented. Although the function of these highly conserved modifications has remained elusive, converging biochemical and genetic evidence suggests functions in several chromatin-based processes. We propose that distinct histone modifications, on one or more tails, act sequentially or in combination to form a 'histone code' that is, read by other proteins to bring about distinct downstream events.
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Affiliation(s)
- B D Strahl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Health Science Center, Charlottesville 22908, USA
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18
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Tse C, Georgieva EI, Ruiz-García AB, Sendra R, Hansen JC. Gcn5p, a transcription-related histone acetyltransferase, acetylates nucleosomes and folded nucleosomal arrays in the absence of other protein subunits. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:32388-92. [PMID: 9829967 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.49.32388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Gcn5p is the catalytic subunit of several type A histone acetyltransferases (HATs). Previous studies performed under a limited range of solution conditions have found that nucleosome core particles and nucleosomal arrays can be acetylated by Gcn5p only when it is complexed with other proteins, e.g. Gcn5-Ada, HAT-A2, and SAGA. Here we demonstrate that when assayed in buffer containing optimum concentrations of either NaCl or MgCl2, purified yeast recombinant Gcn5p (rGcn5p) efficiently acetylates both nucleosome core particles and nucleosomal arrays. Furthermore, under conditions where nucleosomal arrays are extensively folded, rGcn5p acetylates folded arrays approximately 40% faster than nucleosome core particles. Finally, rGcn5p polyacetylates the N termini of free histone H3 but only monoacetylates H3 in nucleosomes and nucleosomal arrays. These results demonstrate both that rGcn5p in and of itself is catalytically active when assayed under optimal solution conditions and that this enzyme prefers folded nucleosomal arrays as a substrate. They further suggest that the structure of the histone H3 N terminus, and concomitantly the accessibility of the H3 acetylation sites, changes upon assembly into nucleosomes and nucleosomal arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tse
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, E-46100 Burjassot (València), Spain.
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19
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Ruiz-García AB, Sendra R, Galiana M, Pamblanco M, Pérez-Ortín JE, Tordera V. HAT1 and HAT2 proteins are components of a yeast nuclear histone acetyltransferase enzyme specific for free histone H4. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:12599-605. [PMID: 9575221 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.20.12599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We have analyzed the histone acetyltransferase enzymes obtained from a series of yeast hat1, hat2, and gcn5 single mutants and hat1,hat2 and hat1,gcn5 double mutants. Extracts prepared from both hat1 and hat2 mutant strains specifically lack the following two histone acetyltransferase activities: the well known cytoplasmic type B enzyme and a free histone H4-specific histone acetyltransferase located in the nucleus. The catalytic subunits of both cytoplasmic and nuclear enzymes have identical molecular masses (42 kDa), the same as that of HAT1. However, the cytoplasmic complex has a molecular mass (150 kDa) greater than that of the nuclear complex (110 kDa). The possible functions of HAT1 and HAT2 in the yeast nucleus are discussed. In addition, we have detected a yeast histone acetyltransferase not previously described, designated HAT-A4. This enzyme is located in the nucleus and is able to acetylate free and nucleosome-bound histones H3 and H4. Finally, we show that the hat1, gcn5 double mutant is viable and does not exhibit a new phenotype, thus suggesting the existence of several histone acetyltransferases with overlapping functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Ruiz-García
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, Dr. Moliner 50, E-46100 Burjassot (València), Spain
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20
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Puig OM, Bellés E, López-Rodas G, Sendra R, Tordera V. Interaction between N-terminal domain of H4 and DNA is regulated by the acetylation degree. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1998; 1397:79-90. [PMID: 9545542 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4781(98)00008-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
To study whether the acetylation of one or more of the four acetylatable lysines of histone H4 affects its binding to DNA, we have designed a protection experiment with a model system consisting in phage lambda DNA as substrate, StuI as restriction endonuclease and histone H4 with different degrees of acetylation as the protective agent. It can be deduced from the experimental data that the protection afforded by the histone is not dependent on the number of positive charges lost by acetylation. Thus, non-acetylated H4 and mono-acetylated H4 cause similar protection, while di-acetylation of the histone seems to be the crucial step in significantly weakening the interaction between H4 and DNA. This is confirmed by the results obtained in protection experiments carried out using H4 peptide (1-24) with different degrees of acetylation as the protecting agent. As restriction enzyme can imitate any trans-acting factor with sequence recognition, the di-acetylated isoform of histone H4 can be the starting point, through acetylation, to unmask DNA sequences, allowing the accessibility of regulatory factors to DNA in the chromatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- O M Puig
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de València, Spain
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21
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Krześlak A, Lipińska A. Age-related patterns of lectin-binding nuclear glycoproteins of hamster liver. Mech Ageing Dev 1996; 90:223-33. [PMID: 8898315 DOI: 10.1016/0047-6374(96)01750-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We studied the age-related patterns of lectin-binding liver nuclear glycoproteins from hamsters between 5 and 35 weeks of age. The examinations of the carbohydrate structures of liver nuclear glycoproteins in relation to the age of hamsters were carried out after electrophoresis and blotting by a very sensitive immunological detection system with highly specific digoxigenin-labelled lectins. The results reported in the present study do not show any significant changes in the patterns of nuclear glycoproteins with regards to the age of hamsters except the decrease in affinity of wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) to 63 kDa glycoprotein bearing single O-linked N-acetylglucosamine residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Krześlak
- Department of Cytobiochemistry, University of Lódź, Poland
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22
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Ruh MF, Cox LK, Ruh TS. Estrogen receptor interaction with specific histones. Binding to genomic DNA and an estrogen response element. Biochem Pharmacol 1996; 52:869-78. [PMID: 8781505 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(96)00407-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Chromosomal proteins that impart high affinity and specificity to the binding of the estrogen receptor (ER) to DNA are termed estrogen receptor binding factors (ERBFs). Certain partially purified chromosomal protein fractions obtained from rabbit uterine chromatin by extraction with various molarities of GdnHCl when reconstituted to double-stranded DNA demonstrated high affinity binding for the ER. We report the purification and characterization of ERBFs in the chromosomal protein fraction extracted with 4 M GdnHCl (CP4) after large scale purification. These protein fractions were further purified by CL-Sepharose 6B column chromatography which resolved fractions from CP4 that recognized the ER bound by estrogen only or antiestrogen only. Thus, these hydrophobic chromosomal proteins enhanced the binding of the ER to reconstituted chromatin. To further investigate the interaction of ERBFs with ER, gel mobility shift assays were performed. The highly purified CP4 fraction with ERBF activity in the binding assay with reconstituted chromatin caused an increase in the formation of the retarded ER-estrogen responsive element (ERE) band. Thus, chromatin contains specific ERBFs for ER bound by estrogen which enhance the binding of ER to genomic DNA and a target ERE sequence. Further purification of the CL-Sepharose fraction with ERBF activity was achieved by preparative SDS-PAGE. ERBF activity was attributed to proteins with approximate molecular weights of 16,000, 13,000, and 12,000 and a pl of > 9.0. Peptides were partially sequenced by Edman degradation and were found to have identity with histones H2B and H4. A 17 kDa protein without ERBF activity was identified as H3. Since these histones were not readily extracted from chromatin with 3 M NaCl or 1-3 M GdnHCl, we postulate that some ERBFs may be histone variants or modified histones that display a very high affinity for DNA and ER.
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Affiliation(s)
- M F Ruh
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, MO 63104, USA
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23
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Fredlund JO, Oredsson SM. Normal G1/S transition and prolonged S phase within one cell cycle after seeding cells in the presence of an ornithine decarboxylase inhibitor. Cell Prolif 1996; 29:457-66. [PMID: 8918559 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2184.1996.tb00988.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We have previously found that DNA replication was affected within one cell cycle after seeding Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells in the presence of the polyamine biosynthesis inhibitor 2-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO). We could, however, not rule out if this was due to an effect on the G1/S transition and/or on DNA synthesis elongation. In the present paper, we use a bromodeoxyuridine- flow cytometric method to more specifically study the G1/S transition, the S phase length, and the progression of cells from S phase through G2+M and into G1, after seeding plateau phase CHO cells at low density in the absence or presence of 5 mM DFMO. We report here that DFMO-induced polyamine depletion increased the length of the S phase within one cell cycle after seeding of CHO cells in the presence of the inhibitor. No effect on the G1/S transition was observed until 2 days after seeding, suggesting that a DFMO-induced lengthening of the G1 phase occurred later than the effect on S phase progression. These results imply that the G2+M phase was not prolonged until 2 days after seeding CHO cells in the presence of DFMO.
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Affiliation(s)
- J O Fredlund
- Department of Animal Physiology, University of Lund, Sweden.
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24
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Abstract
The normal progression of Saccharomyces cerevisiae through nuclear division requires the function of the amino-terminal domain of histone H4. Mutations that delete the domain, or alter 4 conserved lysine residues within the domain, cause a marked delay during the G2+M phases of the cell cycle. Site-directed mutagenesis of single and multiple lysine residues failed to map this phenotype to any particular site; the defect was only observed when all four lysines were mutated. Starting with a quadruple lysine-to-glutamine substitution allele, the insertion of a tripeptide containing a single extra lysine residue suppressed the G2+M cell cycle defect. Thus, the amino-terminal domain of histone H4 has novel genetic functions that depend on the presence of lysine per se, and not a specific primary peptide sequence. To determine the nature of this function, we examined H4 mutants that were also defective for G2/M checkpoint pathways. Disruption of the mitotic spindle checkpoint pathway had no effect on the phenotype of the histone amino-terminal domain mutant. However, disruption of RAD9, which is part of the pathway that monitors DNA integrity, caused precocious progression of the H4 mutant through nuclear division and increased cell death. These results indicate that the lysine-dependent function of histone H4 is required for the maintenance of genome integrity, and that DNA damage resulting from the loss of this function activates the RAD9-dependent G2/M checkpoint pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- P C Megee
- Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia School of Medicine Charlottesville 22908, USA
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25
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Kozurková M, Misúrová E, Kropácová K. Effect of aging and gamma radiation on acetylation of rat liver histones. Mech Ageing Dev 1995; 78:1-14. [PMID: 7603086 DOI: 10.1016/0047-6374(94)01503-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
We studied age-related and radiation induced changes in histone acetyltransferase activity and acetylation of histone fractions in normal and regenerating rat livers. Male Wistar rats aged 1-28 months were used through the studies. They were exposed to whole-body doses of 5.7 Gy gamma radiation from a 60Co source and partial hepatectomy was carried out 30 min after irradiation. Within nuclei isolated from normal and regenerating livers of rats, acetyltransferase activity of histones increased with age. An age-dependent decrease in histone acetyltransferase activity in normal and regenerating rat livers was also obvious at the time of maximum activity (i.e. at the 4th min of incubation). The radiation-induced drop in acetyltransferase activity was mild in normal livers. Twenty-four hours after partial hepatectomy, acetyltransferase activity in regenerating livers was almost completely inhibited by irradiation. The acetylation of histone fractions and subfractions was not equal. The highest activity among all histone fractions was found in fraction H4. In regenerating livers of non-irradiated and irradiated rats, there was a greater rate of acetylation in tetraacetylated subfractions of histone H4 compared with intact livers.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kozurková
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, P.J. Safárik University, Kosice, Slovak Republic
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26
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Abstract
The DNA of eukaryotic cells is organized in a complex with proteins, either as interphase chromatin or mitotic chromosomes. Nucleosomes, the structural subunits of chromatin, have long been considered as static structures, incompatible with processes occurring in chromatin. During the past few years it has become evident that the histone part of the nucleosome has important regulatory functions. Some of these functions are mediated by the N-terminal core histone domains which contain sites for posttranslational modifications, among them lysine residues for reversible acetylation. Recent results indicate that acetylation and deacetylation of N-terminal lysines of nucleosomal core histones represent a means of molecular communication between chromatin and the cellular signal transduction network, resulting in heritable epigenetic information. Data on enzymes involved in acetylation and the pattern of acetylated lysine sites on chromosomes, as well as genetic data on yeast transcriptional repression, suggest that acetylation may lead to structural transitions as well as specific signalling within distinct chromatin domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Loidl
- Department of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck-Medical School, Austria
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27
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Sanchez del Pino MM, Lopez-Rodas G, Sendra R, Tordera V. Properties of the yeast nuclear histone deacetylase. Biochem J 1994; 303 ( Pt 3):723-9. [PMID: 7980438 PMCID: PMC1137606 DOI: 10.1042/bj3030723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
A nuclear histone deacetylase from yeast was partially purified and some of its characteristics were studied. Histone deacetylase activity was stimulated in vitro by high-mobility-group nonhistone chromatin proteins 1 and 2 and ubiquitin and inhibited by spermine and spermidine, whereas n-butyrate had no significant inhibitory effect. Like the mammalian enzyme, partially purified histone deacetylase from yeast was strongly inhibited by trichostatin A. However, in crude extract preparations the yeast enzyme was not inhibited and treatment with trichostatin in vivo did not show any effect, either on the histone acetylation level or on cell viability. At low ionic strength, the enzyme can be isolated as a complex of high molecular mass that is much less inhibited by trichostatin A than is partially purified histone deacetylase activity. Furthermore, radiolabelled oligonucleosomes were more efficiently deacetylated by the complex than by the low-molecular-mass form of the enzyme. The histone deacetylase activity was separated from a polyamine deacetylase activity and its specificity studied. Using h.p.l.c.-purified core histone species as substrate, histone deacetylase from yeast is able to deacetylate all core histones with a slight preference for H3. Our results support the idea that the yeast histone deacetylase may act as a high-molecular-mass complex in vivo.
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28
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Modifications and Conformations of DNA and Nuclear Proteins. Mol Endocrinol 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-111231-8.50018-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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