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Abstract
Epilepsy is considered a major serious chronic neurological disorder, characterized by recurrent seizures. It is usually associated with a history of a lesion in the nervous system. Irregular activation of inflammatory molecules in the injured tissue is an important factor in the development of epilepsy. It is unclear how the imbalanced regulation of inflammatory mediators contributes to epilepsy. A recent research goal is to identify interconnected inflammation pathways which may be involved in the development of epilepsy. The clinical use of available antiepileptic drugs is often restricted by their limitations, incidence of several side effects, and drug interactions. So development of new drugs, which modulate epilepsy through novel mechanisms, is necessary. Alternative therapies and diet have recently reported positive treatment outcomes in epilepsy. Vitamin D (Vit D) has shown prophylactic and therapeutic potential in different neurological disorders. So, the aim of current study was to review the associations between different brain inflammatory mediators and epileptogenesis, to strengthen the idea that targeting inflammatory pathway may be an effective therapeutic strategy to prevent or treat epilepsy. In addition, neuroprotective effects and mechanisms of Vit D in clinical and preclinical studies of epilepsy were reviewed.
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Hartz AMS, Rempe RG, Soldner ELB, Pekcec A, Schlichtiger J, Kryscio R, Bauer B. Cytosolic phospholipase A2 is a key regulator of blood-brain barrier function in epilepsy. FASEB J 2019; 33:14281-14295. [PMID: 31661303 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201901369rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier dysfunction in epilepsy contributes to seizures and resistance to antiseizure drugs. Reports show that seizures increase brain glutamate levels, leading to barrier dysfunction. One component of barrier dysfunction is overexpression of the drug efflux transporters P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP). Based on our previous studies, we hypothesized that glutamate released during seizures activates cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), resulting in P-gp and BCRP overexpression. We exposed isolated rat brain capillaries to glutamate ex vivo and used an in vivo-ex vivo approach of isolating brain capillaries from rats after status epilepticus (SE) and in chronic epileptic (CE) rats. Glutamate increased cPLA2, P-gp, and BCRP protein and activity levels in isolated brain capillaries. We confirmed the role of cPLA2 in the signaling pathway in brain capillaries from male and female mice lacking cPLA2. We also demonstrated, in vivo, that cPLA2 inhibition prevents overexpression of P-gp and BCRP at the blood-brain barrier in rats after status epilepticus and in CE rats. Our data support the hypothesis that glutamate signals cPLA2 activation, resulting in overexpression of blood-brain barrier P-gp and BCRP.-Hartz, A. M. S., Rempe, R. G., Soldner, E. L. B., Pekcec, A., Schlichtiger, J., Kryscio, R., Bauer, B. Cytosolic phospholipase A2 is a key regulator of blood-brain barrier function in epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika M S Hartz
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Ralf G Rempe
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Emma L B Soldner
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Anton Pekcec
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Juli Schlichtiger
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Richard Kryscio
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.,Department of Statistics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Bjoern Bauer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.,Epilepsy Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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The role of secretory phospholipase A₂ in the central nervous system and neurological diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:863-76. [PMID: 24113843 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8565-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 09/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2s) are small secreted proteins (14-18 kDa) and require submillimolar levels of Ca(2+) for liberating arachidonic acid from cell membrane lipids. In addition to the enzymatic function, sPLA2 can exert various biological responses by binding to specific receptors. Physiologically, sPLA2s play important roles on the neurotransmission in the central nervous system and the neuritogenesis in the peripheral nervous system. Pathologically, sPLA2s are involved in the neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease) and cerebrovascular diseases (e.g., stoke). The common pathology (e.g., neuronal apoptosis) of Alzheimer's disease and stroke coexists in the mixed dementia, suggesting common pathogenic mechanisms of the two neurological diseases. Among mammalian sPLA2s, sPLA2-IB and sPLA2-IIA induce neuronal apoptosis in rat cortical neurons. The excess influx of calcium into neurons via L-type voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels mediates the two sPLA2-induced apoptosis. The elevated concentration of intracellular calcium activates PKC, MAPK and cytosolic PLA2. Moreover, it is linked with the production of reactive oxygen species and apoptosis through activation of the superoxide producing enzyme NADPH oxidase. NADPH oxidase is involved in the neurotoxicity of amyloid β peptide, which impairs synaptic plasticity long before its deposition in the form of amyloid plaques of Alzheimer's disease. In turn, reactive oxygen species from NADPH oxidase can stimulate ERK1/2 phosphorylation and activation of cPLA2 and result in a release of arachidonic acid. sPLA2 is up-regulated in both Alzheimer's disease and cerebrovascular disease, suggesting the involvement of sPLA2 in the common pathogenic mechanisms of the two diseases. Thus, our review presents evidences for pathophysiological roles of sPLA2 in the central nervous system and neurological diseases.
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Effects of anesthetic agents on seizure-induction with intra-cortical injection of convulsants. Epilepsy Res 2013; 105:52-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2012.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 12/02/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Talib LL, Diniz BS, Zainaghi IA, Forlenza OV, Gattaz WF. A radioenzymatic assay to identify three groups of phospholipase A(2) in platelets. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2012; 86:149-53. [PMID: 22498046 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2012.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Revised: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipases A(2) (PLA(2)) are key enzymes in membrane metabolism. The release of fatty acids and lysophospholipids by PLA(2) activates several intra-cellular second messenger cascades that regulate a wide variety of physiological responses. The aim of the present study is to describe a radioenzymatic assay to determine the activity of three main PLA(2) subtypes in platelets, namely extracellular calcium-dependent PLA(2) (sPLA(2)) and intracellular calcium-dependent (cPLA(2)) and calcium-independent PLA(2) (iPLA(2)). The differentiation of these distinct PLA(2) subtypes was based on the enzyme substrate preference (arachdonic acid or palmitoyl acid) and calcium concentration. Our results indicate that this new assay is feasible, precise and specific to measure the activity of the aforementioned subtypes of PLA(2). Therefore, this protocol can be used to investigate modifications of PLA(2) homeostasis in distinct biological models addressing the pathophysiology of many medical and neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leda L Talib
- Laboratory of Neuroscience-LIM 27, Department and Institute of Psychiatry, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Shin EJ, Jeong JH, Chung YH, Kim WK, Ko KH, Bach JH, Hong JS, Yoneda Y, Kim HC. Role of oxidative stress in epileptic seizures. Neurochem Int 2011; 59:122-37. [PMID: 21672578 PMCID: PMC3606551 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2011.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 03/27/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress resulting from excessive free-radical release is likely implicated in the initiation and progression of epilepsy. Therefore, antioxidant therapies aimed at reducing oxidative stress have received considerable attention in epilepsy treatment. However, much evidence suggests that oxidative stress does not always have the same pattern in all seizures models. Thus, this review provides an overview aimed at achieving a better understanding of this issue. We summarize work regarding seizure models (i.e., genetic rat models, kainic acid, pilocarpine, pentylenetetrazol, and trimethyltin), oxidative stress as an etiologic factor in epileptic seizures (i.e., impairment of antioxidant systems, mitochondrial dysfunction, involvement of redox-active metals, arachidonic acid pathway activation, and aging), and antioxidant strategies for seizure treatment. Combined, this review highlights pharmacological mechanisms associated with oxidative stress in epileptic seizures and the potential for neuroprotection in epilepsy that targets oxidative stress and is supported by effective antioxidant treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Joo Shin
- Neuropsychopharamcology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 200-701, South Korea
| | - Ji Hoon Jeong
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, South Korea
| | - Yoon Hee Chung
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, South Korea
| | - Won-Ki Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul 136-705, South Korea
| | - Kwang-Ho Ko
- Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 143-701, South Korea
| | - Jae-Hyung Bach
- Neuropsychopharamcology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 200-701, South Korea
| | - Jau-Shyong Hong
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Yukio Yoneda
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hyoung-Chun Kim
- Neuropsychopharamcology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 200-701, South Korea
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Ueda Y, Kitamoto A, Willmore LJ, Kojima T. Hippocampal gene network analysis in an experimental model of posttraumatic epilepsy. Neurochem Res 2010; 36:1323-8. [PMID: 21191651 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-010-0386-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we performed comprehensive gene expression and gene network analyses using a DNA microarray to elucidate the molecular events responsible for the pathology of posttraumatic epilepsy at the partial seizure stage. We used an experimental posttraumatic epilepsy model of amygdalar focal FeCl(3)-injected rats and compared gene expression profiles in the hippocampus at the partial seizure stage (less than stage 3 on Racine's convulsion scale) and that of sham-operated animals. At the partial seizure stage, upregulation of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and lipid metabolism were observed, which have been reported to be caused by brain injury and seizures in previous studies. Furthermore, significant upregulation of genes related to inflammation and the immune system was observed. These molecular changes in PLA2 and lipid metabolism may be related to seizure propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuto Ueda
- Section of Psychiatry, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, 889-1692, Japan
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Rimoli MG, Russo E, Cataldi M, Citraro R, Ambrosino P, Melisi D, Curcio A, De Lucia S, Patrignani P, De Sarro G, Abignente E. T-type channel blocking properties and antiabsence activity of two imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine derivatives structurally related to indomethacin. Neuropharmacology 2009; 56:637-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2008] [Revised: 10/24/2008] [Accepted: 11/20/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Dahan A, Duvdevani R, Shapiro I, Elmann A, Finkelstein E, Hoffman A. The oral absorption of phospholipid prodrugs: In vivo and in vitro mechanistic investigation of trafficking of a lecithin-valproic acid conjugate following oral administration. J Control Release 2008; 126:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2007.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2007] [Revised: 10/29/2007] [Accepted: 10/31/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Forlenza OV, Mendes CT, Marie SKN, Gattaz WF. Inhibition of phospholipase A2 reduces neurite outgrowth and neuronal viability. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2007; 76:47-55. [PMID: 17187973 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2006.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2006] [Revised: 09/27/2006] [Accepted: 10/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA(2)) has been implicated in neurodevelopmental processes and in the early development of the nervous system. We investigated the effects of the inhibition of calcium-dependent and calcium-independent subtypes of cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2 and iPLA2) on the development and viability of primary cultures of cortical and hippocampal neurons. PLA2 in these cultures was continuously inhibited with methylarachidonyl-fluorophosphonate (MAFP), an irreversible inhibitor of cPLA2 and iPLA2, or with bromoenol lactone (BEL), an irreversible selective iPLA2 inhibitor. The effect of PLA2 inhibitors on the development of neuronal cultures was ascertained by total cell count and morphological characterisation. Neuronal viability was quantified with MTT assays. Inhibition of PLA2 resulted in reduction of neuritogenesis and neuronal viability, disrupting neuronal homeostasis and leading to neuronal death. We conclude that the functional integrity of both calcium-dependent and calcium-independent cytosolic PLA2 is necessary for the in vitro development of cortical and hippocampal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orestes V Forlenza
- Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM-27), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Rua Dr. Ovídio Pires de Campos s/n, 05403-010 Sao Paulo, Brazil.
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Farooqui AA, Ong WY, Horrocks LA. Inhibitors of brain phospholipase A2 activity: their neuropharmacological effects and therapeutic importance for the treatment of neurologic disorders. Pharmacol Rev 2006; 58:591-620. [PMID: 16968951 DOI: 10.1124/pr.58.3.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The phospholipase A(2) family includes secretory phospholipase A(2), cytosolic phospholipase A(2), plasmalogen-selective phospholipase A(2), and calcium-independent phospholipase A(2). It is generally thought that the release of arachidonic acid by cytosolic phospholipase A(2) is the rate-limiting step in the generation of eicosanoids and platelet activating factor. These lipid mediators play critical roles in the initiation and modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress. Neurological disorders, such as ischemia, spinal cord injury, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, prion diseases, and epilepsy are characterized by inflammatory reactions, oxidative stress, altered phospholipid metabolism, accumulation of lipid peroxides, and increased phospholipase A(2) activity. Increased activities of phospholipases A(2) and generation of lipid mediators may be involved in oxidative stress and neuroinflammation associated with the above neurological disorders. Several phospholipase A(2) inhibitors have been recently discovered and used for the treatment of ischemia and other neurological diseases in cell culture and animal models. At this time very little is known about in vivo neurochemical effects, mechanism of action, or toxicity of phospholipase A(2) inhibitors in human or animal models of neurological disorders. In kainic acid-mediated neurotoxicity, the activities of phospholipase A(2) isoforms and their immunoreactivities are markedly increased and phospholipase A(2) inhibitors, quinacrine and chloroquine, arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone, bromoenol lactone, cytidine 5-diphosphoamines, and vitamin E, not only inhibit phospholipase A(2) activity and immunoreactivity but also prevent neurodegeneration, suggesting that phospholipase A(2) is involved in the neurodegenerative process. This also suggests that phospholipase A(2) inhibitors can be used as neuroprotectants and anti-inflammatory agents against neurodegenerative processes in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhlaq A Farooqui
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 1645 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1218, USA
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Phillis JW, Horrocks LA, Farooqui AA. Cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, and epoxygenases in CNS: Their role and involvement in neurological disorders. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 52:201-43. [PMID: 16647138 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2005] [Revised: 02/23/2006] [Accepted: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Three enzyme systems, cyclooxygenases that generate prostaglandins, lipoxygenases that form hydroxy derivatives and leukotrienes, and epoxygenases that give rise to epoxyeicosatrienoic products, metabolize arachidonic acid after its release from neural membrane phospholipids by the action of phospholipase A(2). Lysophospholipids, the other products of phospholipase A(2) reactions, are either reacylated or metabolized to platelet-activating factor. Under normal conditions, these metabolites play important roles in synaptic function, cerebral blood flow regulation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and gene expression. Increased activities of cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, and epoxygenases under pathological situations such as ischemia, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease produce neuroinflammation involving vasodilation and vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, leukocyte chemotaxis and release of cytokines, and oxidative stress. These are closely associated with the neural cell injury which occurs in these neurological conditions. The metabolic products of docosahexaenoic acid, through these enzymes, generate a new class of lipid mediators, namely docosatrienes and resolvins. These metabolites antagonize the effect of metabolites derived from arachidonic acid. Recent studies provide insight into how these arachidonic acid metabolites interact with each other and other bioactive mediators such as platelet-activating factor, endocannabinoids, and docosatrienes under normal and pathological conditions. Here, we review present knowledge of the functions of cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, and epoxygenases in brain and their association with neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Phillis
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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Mendes CT, Gattaz WF, Schaeffer EL, Forlenza OV. Modulation of phospholipase A2 activity in primary cultures of rat cortical neurons. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2005; 112:1297-308. [PMID: 15682269 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-004-0271-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2004] [Accepted: 12/11/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In neurons, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) plays a central role in the regulation of membrane phospholipid metabolism. We have addressed the pharmacological modulation of PLA2 in primary cultures of rat cortical neurons. Inhibition curves were obtained in 4 day-in-culture neurons treated for 30 minutes with either the dual PLA2 inhibitor methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP), or the iPLA2 inhibitor bromoenol lactone (BEL). Full inhibition was achieved with 100 and 250 microM of MAFP, or 10 and 20 microM of BEL. Conversely, a dose-dependent activation of PLA2 was obtained with 10-20 microg/ml of melitin. PLA2 inhibition with MAFP or BEL was not acutely toxic for cultured neurons. However, sustained inhibition of the enzyme precluded the development of neurites, and resulted in long-term loss of neuronal viability. We present a model of pharmacological challenge of PLA2 in vitro, which can be further used to address the involvement of the enzyme in neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration models.
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Affiliation(s)
- C T Mendes
- Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM-27), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Brazil
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Tu B, Bazan NG. Hippocampal kindling epileptogenesis upregulates neuronal cyclooxygenase-2 expression in neocortex. Exp Neurol 2003; 179:167-75. [PMID: 12618123 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-4886(02)00019-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Recurrent and spontaneous seizures in epilepsy result from poorly defined cell signaling aberrations thought to include synaptic and extracellular matrix remodeling. Here we have used a rat hippocampal kindling model to study cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) gene expression in epileptogenesis. COX-2, encoded in an early-response gene, increases in a synaptic activity-dependent fashion and also during kainic acid-induced hippocampal damage. We found that during kindling, COX-2 induction occurred initially only in hippocampal neurons, and then spread to neocortical neurons. When rats were rekindled 34 days later, this spreading of COX-2 expression persisted. Induction of hippocampal and neocortical cytosolic phospholipase A(2) (cPLA(2)), an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of COX-2 substrate arachidonic acid (AA), occurred after 4 days of stimulation during kindling and rekindling. Moreover the COX-2 selective inhibitor nimesulide attenuated kindling development. We conclude that neuronal COX-2 gene induction and cPLA(2) activation are key signaling events in epileptogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Tu
- Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Neuroscience Center of Excellence, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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Gattaz WF. Neuroquímica da esquizofrenia: papel dos fosfolípides. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PSIQUIATRIA 2000. [DOI: 10.1590/s1516-44462000000500003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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