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Hirst MA, Rodas-Martínez AZ, Milich KM, Cortés-Ortiz L. Differences in sperm morphology between Alouatta palliata and Alouatta pigra are consistent with the intensity of sperm competition in each species. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23538. [PMID: 37487624 PMCID: PMC10528854 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
The intensity of sperm competition, in which sperm compete within the female reproductive tract to reach and fertilize her eggs, varies in species with different mating systems. Sperm competition is more intense in species where males cannot monopolize access to reproductive females and females mate with multiple males. In this scenario, a morphological change that increases the ability of sperm to reach and fertilize eggs should rapidly spread in the population, leading to sperm morphological differences between closely related species. Differences in sperm morphology have been reported among primate species with different mating systems. However, due to the inherent logistical and ethical difficulties to sample sperm from wild primates, the extent of variation in sperm morphology within species and among closely related species remains understudied. Here, we compared sperm morphological traits from two sister howler monkey species (Alouatta palliata and Alouatta pigra) that have different mating systems to investigate the effect of sperm competition on sperm morphological traits. We predicted that sperm from A. palliata, where females have more opportunities to mate with multiple males, would show differences in traits associated with increase sperm competitiveness compared to A. pigra where females mostly mate with the central male. We used linear mixed models to determine species differences in sperm morphology, controlling for individual variation. We found that midpieces and heads in A. palliata sperm were on average 26.2% and 11.0% longer, respectively, than those of A. pigra. Differences in these traits are important for sperm speed and hydrodynamic movement in other species and can affect fertilization success. This study provides empirical evidence of sperm morphological traits that evolved through sexual selection in sister primate species with different mating systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly A. Hirst
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, 1105 N. University Ave., Ann Arbor, MI, USA 48109
| | - Alba Z. Rodas-Martínez
- División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, km 0.5 Carr. Villahermosa-Cárdenas S/N, entroque a Bosques de Saloya, 86039 Villahermosa, Tabasco, México
| | - Krista M. Milich
- Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO, USA 63130
| | - Liliana Cortés-Ortiz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, 1105 N. University Ave., Ann Arbor, MI, USA 48109
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Duffy PX, Wellian J, Smith RL. Use of Space by black-and-gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in an urban environment in Paraguay. Urban Ecosyst 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-022-01262-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAs urbanisation continues to reduce the available habitat for wildlife, some species, including the black-and-gold howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) in Pilar, southwest Paraguay, are making their homes in anthropogenic environments. Understanding an animal’s home range is an important step to understanding its ecological needs, and an essential requirement for the creation of robust conservation plans. In this study, we determined the home ranges and core areas of five groups of urban dwelling A. caraya using Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) and Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) Analysis. We used a Spearman’s Correlation to explore the relationship between home range size and group size. All five groups had home ranges of less than 10 ha and used core areas of less than 1 ha. Group size had no significant relationship to home range size. We provide the first estimates of home range for A. caraya in an urban environment in Paraguay. Though the home ranges of the urban A. caraya in Pilar, Paraguay fall at the smaller end of the spectrum of range sizes in Alouatta, they are not abnormal for a species in this genus.
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Bolt LM, Cavanaugh MN, Schreier AL. Lone males: Solitary and group-living male howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) behavioral ecology in a Costa Rican rainforest. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 174:201-212. [PMID: 33017866 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Many group-living primate species have evolved the capacity for some individuals to live alone for part of their lives, but this solitary life stage has rarely been the subject of focused research. The mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) is a social primate species with bisexual dispersal that lives in mixed-sex groups with low male-to-female sex ratios. Consequently, males often spend a long period of their lives as solitary individuals. This study compares the tree use, feeding, and long-distance vocalization behavior of solitary and group-living mantled howler monkey males living within a fragmented rainforest in Costa Rica, La Suerte Biological Research Station. Based on differences in competitive ability between solitary and group-living males, we predicted that lone males would be found in significantly smaller feeding and resting trees, consume more low-quality foods, and produce shorter howling bouts made at lower rates than group-living males. MATERIALS AND METHODS We collected data on tree use and feeding during 30-min focal samples on male focal animals, recording data at 2-min intervals. We measured the trees in which the monkeys fed and rested for two or more intervals, and recorded the plant parts consumed. We recorded howling behavior using all-occurrences sampling. RESULTS Lone males used significantly smaller feeding and resting trees, consumed more low-quality foods, and howled at lower rates but had longer howling bouts triggered by anthropogenic noise more than group-living males. DISCUSSION Our results demonstrate that lone males differ in their behavioral ecology compared to group-living males, thus improving understanding of the solitary male life stage in primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Bolt
- Department of Anthropology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.,The Maderas Rainforest Conservancy, Miami, Florida, USA
| | | | - Amy L Schreier
- The Maderas Rainforest Conservancy, Miami, Florida, USA.,Department of Biology, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA
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French JA, Cavanaugh J, Mustoe AC, Carp SB, Womack SL. Social Monogamy in Nonhuman Primates: Phylogeny, Phenotype, and Physiology. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2018; 55:410-434. [PMID: 28704071 PMCID: PMC6004613 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2017.1339774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Monogamy as a social system has been both a scientific puzzle and a sociocultural issue for decades. In this review, we examine social monogamy from a comparative perspective with a focus on primates, our closest genetic relatives. We break down monogamy into component elements, including pair-bonding and partner preference, mate guarding or jealousy, social attachment, and biparental care. Our survey of primates shows that not all features are present in species classified as socially monogamous, in the same way that human monogamous relationships may not include all elements-a perspective we refer to as "monogamy à la carte." Our review includes a survey of the neurobiological correlates of social monogamy in primates, exploring unique or common pathways for the elemental components of monogamy. This compilation reveals that the components of monogamy are modulated by a suite of androgenic steroids, glucocorticoid hormones, the nonapeptide hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, and other neurotransmitter systems (e.g., dopamine and opioids). We propose that efforts to understand the biological underpinnings of complex human and animal sociosexual relationships will be well served by exploring individual phenotypic traits, as opposed to pursuing these questions with the assumption that monogamy is a unitary trait or a species-specific characteristic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A French
- a Department of Psychology and Department of Biology , University of Nebraska Omaha
| | - Jon Cavanaugh
- b Department of Psychology , University of Nebraska Omaha
| | - Aaryn C Mustoe
- b Department of Psychology , University of Nebraska Omaha
| | - Sarah B Carp
- b Department of Psychology , University of Nebraska Omaha
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Ermak J, Brightwell K, Gibson Q. Multi-level dolphin alliances in northeastern Florida offer comparative insight into pressures shaping alliance formation. J Mammal 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyx053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Dias PAD, Coyohua-Fuentes A, Canales-Espinosa D, Rangel-Negrín A. Factors Influencing the Reproductive Success of Female Black Howlers (Alouatta pigra). INT J PRIMATOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-016-9928-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Mother-male bond, but not paternity, influences male-infant affiliation in wild crested macaques. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016; 70:1117-1130. [PMID: 27478299 PMCID: PMC4954837 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2116-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract In promiscuous primates, interactions between adult males and infants have rarely been investigated. However, recent evidence suggests that male affiliation towards infants has an influence on several aspects of the infants’ life. Furthermore, affiliations may be associated with male reproductive strategy. In this study, we examined which social factors influenced male-infant affiliation initiated by either male or infant, in wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra). We combined behavioral data and genetic paternity analysis from 30 infants living in three wild groups in Tangkoko Reserve, Indonesia. Our results indicate that adult males and infants do not interact at random, but rather form preferential associations. The social factors with the highest influence on infant-initiated interactions were male rank and male association with the infant’s mother. While infants initiated affiliations with males more often in the absence of their mothers, adult males initiated more affiliations with infants when their mothers were present. Furthermore, males initiated affiliations more often when they were in the same group at the time the infant was conceived, when they held a high dominance rank, or when they had a close relationship with the mother. Interestingly, paternity did not affect male-infant affiliation despite being highly skewed in this species. Overall, our results suggest that adult males potentially associate with an infant to secure future mating with the mother. Infants are more likely to associate with a male to receive better support, suggesting a strategy to increase the chance of infant survival in a primate society with high infant mortality. Significance statement We explore social relationships between males and infants in a promiscuous primate, the wild crested macaque. Our novel approach addresses the nature of affiliations both from males’ and infants’ perspectives. The results show that males and infants form preferential associations. Male-female affiliation, but not paternity, was a significant predictor of interactions initiated both by males and infants. Males initiated more interactions towards infants when the mother was in proximity, while infants initiated more interactions in her absence. Finally, high-ranking males were more likely to initiate interactions towards infants. We demonstrated that paternity is not a good predictor of male-infant affiliations, even in a species with a high reproductive skew and a relatively high confidence of paternity. Our paper is one of the first to show that infants are active agents in establishing and maintaining preferential relationships with males. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00265-016-2116-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Ho L, Cortés-Ortiz L, Dias PAD, Canales-Espinosa D, Kitchen DM, Bergman TJ. Effect of ancestry on behavioral variation in two species of howler monkeys (Alouatta pigraandA. palliata) and their hybrids. Am J Primatol 2014; 76:855-67. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2013] [Revised: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Ho
- Department of Psychology; University of Michigan; Ann Arbor Michigan
| | - Liliana Cortés-Ortiz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Michigan; Ann Arbor Michigan
| | | | | | - Dawn M. Kitchen
- Department of Anthropology; Ohio State University; Columbus Ohio
| | - Thore J. Bergman
- Department of Psychology; University of Michigan; Ann Arbor Michigan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Michigan; Ann Arbor Michigan
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Dias PAD, Rangel-Negrín A, Canales-Espinosa D. Effects of lactation on the time-budgets and foraging patterns of female black howlers (Alouatta pigra). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2011; 145:137-46. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Rangel-Negrín A, Dias PAD, Chavira R, Canales-Espinosa D. Social modulation of testosterone levels in male black howlers (Alouatta pigra). Horm Behav 2011; 59:159-66. [PMID: 21081132 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2010] [Revised: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The influence of social factors on the modulation of male testosterone levels has been demonstrated among several vertebrate species. In addition to sexual activity, parental care and reproductive competition affect testosterone secretion. We examined variations in testosterone levels among male black howlers (Alouatta pigra) in various social contexts. Fecal samples were collected from nine males living in five different groups in the Mexican state of Campeche. The potential for intragroup and extragroup competition varied among the groups. The number of resident males living in the groups was the only variable that significantly explained variations in testosterone levels. Males living in unimale groups had higher testosterone levels; the highest testosterone levels were recorded for males that had experienced a shift from multimale to unimale group compositions. In this species, the probability of being challenged by extragroup males and evicted from the group during immigration events increases when males live in unimale groups. Therefore, our results suggest that male black howlers respond to competition for group membership by increasing their testosterone levels. In this context, testosterone secretion represents an anticipatory response to reproductive conflicts. Therefore, although males living in unimale groups have exclusive access to females, they face higher physiological costs associated with sustaining high testosterone levels for extended time periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariadna Rangel-Negrín
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Universidad de Barcelona, Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes 585, Cp 08007 Barcelona, Spain
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Gavazzi AJ, Cornick LA, Markowitz TM, Green D, Markowitz H. Density, Distribution, and Home Range of the Black Howler Monkey (Alouatta pigra) at Lamanai, Belize. J Mammal 2008. [DOI: 10.1644/07-mamm-a-063.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Chapman CA, Pavelka MSM. Group size in folivorous primates: ecological constraints and the possible influence of social factors. Primates 2004; 46:1-9. [PMID: 15197599 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-004-0093-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2003] [Accepted: 04/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The ecological-constraints model assumes that food items occur in depletable patches and proposes that an increase in group size leads to increased day range due to more rapid patch depletion. Smaller groups become advantageous when an increase in travel costs is not repaid by an increase in energy gained or some other fitness advantage. On the other hand, we also know that group size can be influenced by social factors. Here we contrast the diet and group size of red colobus (Procolobus badius) and black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza) in Kibale National Park, Uganda to consider how ecological and social factors are affecting their group sizes. Subsequently, we examine whether the insights gained from this detailed comparison can provide an understanding of why the social organization and group size of mantled howlers (Alouatta palliata) and black howlers (A. pigra) differ. Two groups of red colobus and two groups of black-and-white colobus were studied over 10 months. Red colobus groups were larger (48 and 24) than black-and-white colobus groups (9 and 6). The two groups of red colobus overlap home ranges with the two groups of black-and-white colobus; 75% and 95% of their home ranges were within red colobus's home range. There was a great deal of similarity in the plant parts eaten by the two species and both species fed primarily on young leaves (red colobus 70%, black-and-white colobus 76%). In terms of the actual species consumed, again there was a great deal of similarity between species. The average dietary overlap among months for the two neighboring groups of red colobus was 37.3%, while the dietary overlap between the red colobus and the black-and-white colobus group that had its home range almost entirely within the home range of the red colobus groups averaged 43.2% among months. If ecological conditions were responsible for the difference in group size between the two colobine species, one would expect the density of food trees to be lower in the home ranges of the black-and-white colobus monkeys, since they have the smaller group size. We found the opposite to be true. Both black-and-white colobus groups had more food trees and the cumulative size of those trees was greater than those in the red colobus's home ranges. We quantify how these differences parallel differences in mantled and black howlers. The average group size for mantled howlers was 12.9 individuals, and for black howlers it was 5.3 individuals. We explore possible social constraints, such as infanticide, that prevent black-and-white colobus and black howlers from living in large groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin A Chapman
- Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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Kitchen DM. Alpha male black howler monkey responses to loud calls: effect of numeric odds, male companion behaviour and reproductive investment. Anim Behav 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Estrada A, Castellanos L, Garcia Y, Franco B, Munoz D, Ibarra A, Rivera A, Fuentes E, Jimenez C. Survey of the black howler monkey, alouatta pigra, population at the Mayan site of Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. Primates 2002; 43:51-8. [PMID: 12091747 DOI: 10.1007/bf02629576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A survey of the population of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) present at the Mayan site of Palenque was conducted during 2000. A total of 911 man/hours, spread over 112 days were spent surveying the 600 ha area of pristine forest at the site for howler troops. We detected the presence of 136 individuals of which 131 were members of 20 troops, the rest were 3 solitary adult males and 2 adult males travelling as a pair. Ecological density was estimated at 23 individuals/km(2). Mean troop size was 7.0 individuals and it ranged from 2 - 12 individuals; 60% of the troops were multimale. All sighting of howler monkeys were in evergreen rain forest and 75% were in trees > or = 20 m in height. The reported densities and mean troop size are higher than those reported for the species in Guatemala and in central Quintana Roo, Mexico. The vegetation of the forest contains tree species reported to be used by species of Alouatta in the Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Leguminosae, and Lauraceae plant families. Protection of a large perimeter area (ca 1700 ha) around the archeological site by the Mexican government ensures the conservation of the forest and of the black howler monkey population present at the site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Estrada
- Estacion de Biologia Los Tuxtlas, Instituto de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Apartado Postal 176, San Andres Tuxtla, Veracruz, Mexico. e-mail:
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Abstract
We studied the feeding ecology of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) from March 1994 to April 1995 in the Community Baboon Sanctuary in northern Belize, Central America. Activity and diet composition were recorded using continuous focal animal sampling. Diet composition was compared with the relative abundance of plant parts eaten by the howlers within the study site. The study animals spent an average of 24.4% of their time feeding, 61.9% resting, and approximately 9.8% traveling. In contrast to previously published reports on A. pigra, we found the diet composition to be similar to that of other Alouatta species (conforming to the folivore/frugivore profile), with 41% of feeding time spent eating fruit, 45% foliage, and 11% flowers. This contrast may indicate a wide degree of dietary flexibility that allows A. pigra to inhabit a variety of habitat types. We suggest that a high level of resource abundance throughout the year makes the Community Baboon Sanctuary excellent habitat for Alouatta pigra.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Silver
- Science Resource Center/Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY 10460-1099, USA.
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Ostro LET, Silver SC, Koontz FW, Young TP. Habitat selection by translocated black howler monkeys in Belize. Anim Conserv 2000. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2000.tb00242.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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James RA, Leberg PL, Quattro JM, Vrijenhoek RC. Genetic diversity in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) from Belize. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1997; 102:329-36. [PMID: 9098502 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199703)102:3<329::aid-ajpa3>3.0.co;2-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To assess the level of genetic variation in a threatened black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) population, we examined 36 allozyme loci and restriction fragment profiles of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Mean heterozygosity at allozyme loci was only 0.021 and 5.6 percent of the loci were polymorphic. Analyses of mtDNA also revealed low genetic diversity compared with other primates. F-statistics revealed no significant genetic heterogeneity among troops within the Bermudian Landing preserve, but did indicate a deficiency of heterozygotes at one of the two loci. We explore several explanations for this result, which is unexpected in a socially structured primate. Low genetic diversity in this population may reflect its history of demographic bottlenecks.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A James
- Department of Biology, Kean College of New Jersey, Union 07083-0411, USA
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18
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Alloparental behavior in a captive group of spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) at the Auckland zoo. INT J PRIMATOL 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02735239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Garber PA, Ón FE, Moya L, Pruetz JD. Demographic and reproductive patterns in moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax): Implications for reconstructing platyrrhine mating systems. Am J Primatol 1993; 29:235-254. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.1350290402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/1991] [Revised: 10/31/1992] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Horwich RH, Johnson ED. Geographical distribution of the black howler (Alouatta pigra) in Central America. Primates 1986. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02382522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Spatial relationships between recent mothers and other troop members in red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus). Primates 1983. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02381681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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