Empirical Applications of Skinner's Analysis of Verbal Behavior with Humans

Differential effect of training impure tacts versus pure tacts plus intraverbal on the emergence of new verbal operants: A conceptual and methodological study

The aim of this research was to test the effect of training impure tact versus pure tact and intraverbals on the emergence of new verbal operants (impure tacts), thus establishing a conceptual and methodological differentiation on these operants. This was done by varying the training order of intraverbal or impure tact to analyze and confirm whether or not impure tact is the mere sum of pure tact plus intraverbal and therefore has different functions and consequences in learning. An experiment was conducted with 30 participants randomly assigned to three groups. In Group 1, pure tact plus intraverbal and then impure tact were trained. In Group 3 the training order of these operants was counterbalanced. Group 2 was the control group, training only pure tact plus intraverbal. After the training phases, the emergence of impure tacts was tested. The results of this research indicate that the training of impure tacts favors the emergence of new impure tacts to a greater extent than the training of pure tact plus intraverbal and that they therefore have different functions. It is also shown that variation in the order of presentation of the type of training influences the subsequent emergence of new operants (impure tacts), so that creating a previous history of learning in impure tacts favors emergence even when the intraverbal alone is subsequently trained. This has important implications at both conceptual and methodological levels as it would contribute to the development of more effective language training technologies.

Analyzing the Functional Interdependence of Verbal Behavior with Multiaxial Radar Charts

The functional analysis of complex verbal behavior requires an evaluation of topographically similar responses under multiple sources of control. Traditional graphical displays of behavior were designed to show the manipulation of isolated controlling variables and may not be amenable to displaying the multidimensional properties of complex behavior. Researchers have recently demonstrated the use of multiaxial radar charts for comparing the functional performance of biological systems. Here we extend the use of multidimensional analyses to compare the relative performance distributions of verbal behavior across four potential controlling variables. First, we provide a conceptual analysis of intraverbal and extraverbal control as continua along which stimuli range from formal to thematic and explain how the intersection of these stimulus fields creates a radar chart for multidimensional analysis. Then we demonstrate how data may be gathered through a verbal operant experimental analysis. We employed repeated measures to map the conditioning history of a child with autism spectrum disorder across 2 years of early intensive behavioral intervention and analyzed the results using shape descriptors for quantitative comparisons. We also compared the polygonal language profiles of children with autism against that of a neurotypical peer. Extending a multidimensional analysis to the field of verbal behavior provides the basis for a language growth chart that researchers and clinicians can use to monitor language acquisition over time. We discuss the use of radar charts as a framework for understanding the interdependence of verbal operants and suggest their use for complex analyses of complex verbal behavior.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40614-024-00404-6.

Do NOT Read this Article: the Effects of Autoclitics and Nudge on Choosing

The use of autoclitics can influence the behavior of individuals making choices when responding to a survey (e.g., checking or unchecking a box). In two studies, we investigated the effects of autoclitics as "nudges" on choice by manipulating different frames (opt-in and opt-out) and default options (i.e., unchecked and checked boxes). Undergraduate students recruited from behavioral science courses engaged with materials in the study. In study 1, we used an online survey at the beginning of the semester offering the choice of whether to enroll in extra-academic activities (i.e., practice tests) available via the online course platform, Blackboard. We randomly assigned students into one of four groups: 1) option to enroll with an unchecked box, 2) option to not enroll with an unchecked box, 3) option to enroll with a checked box, or 4) option to not enroll with a checked box. Results showed that the option to not enroll with an unchecked box produced higher enrollment to receive extra academic activities. In the middle of the semester, we conducted a within-subject arrangement wherein students who initially opted out of receiving activities had the option to accept them following exposure to the negative autoclitic frame. Most of these students opted into receiving activities. In study 2, we replicated the methods of study 1 in Canvas, a different course platform, and obtained similar results. We briefly discuss the implications of a nudge for ethical consent.

Culturally Responsive Language Assessment Through a Verbal Operant Experimental Analysis

Speakers from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are disproportionately identified with communication deficits, a defining feature of autism spectrum disorder. The present case study demonstrates the use of a verbal operant experimental analysis as a measure of functional language. This analysis allows a bilingual participant to switch freely between responses in Spanish and English. Prior to receiving services, a pretreatment functional analysis of verbal behavior is used to identify the speaker's present level of functional language and develop an individualized treatment plan for shaping a more complex verbal repertoire. The benefits of culturally responsive early intensive behavioral intervention are demonstrated by a posttest evaluation 5 months later. Functional analyses of language are shown to be a verbal-community-centered approach to observing and measuring the verbal behavior of speakers from diverse backgrounds.

Auditory-motor mapping training: Testing an intonation-based spoken language treatment for minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder

We tested an intonation-based speech treatment for minimally verbal children with autism (auditory-motor mapping training, AMMT) against a nonintonation-based control treatment (speech repetition therapy, SRT). AMMT involves singing, rather than speaking, two-syllable words or phrases. In time with each sung syllable, therapist and child tap together on electronic drums tuned to the same pitches, thus coactivating shared auditory and motor neural representations of manual and vocal actions, and mimicking the "babbling and banging" stage of typical development. Fourteen children (three females), aged 5.0-10.8, with a mean Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-2 score of 22.9 (SD = 2.5) and a mean Kaufman Speech Praxis Test raw score of 12.9 (SD = 13.0) participated in this trial. The main outcome measure was percent syllables approximately correct. Four weeks post-treatment, AMMT resulted in a mean improvement of +12.1 (SE = 3.8) percentage points, compared to +2.8 (SE = 5.7) percentage points for SRT. This between-group difference was associated with a large effect size (Cohen's d = 0.82). Results suggest that simultaneous intonation and bimanual movements presented in a socially engaging milieu are effective factors in AMMT and can create an individualized, interactive music-making environment for spoken-language learning in minimally verbal children with autism.

The Efficacy of Using Telehealth to Coach Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder on How to Use Naturalistic Teaching to Increase Mands, Tacts and Intraverbals

There is a growing body of evidence supporting the use of telehealth to provide parent training in behaviour analytic interventions and researchers have begun to focus on international demonstrations of this model. The current study assessed the efficacy of a training package focused on naturalistic teaching strategies designed to upskill parents of children with autism spectrum disorder and provide them with ready to use strategies to increase social communication behaviours across verbal operants. Two parent-child dyads were trained to increase mand, tact and intraverbals during play. Parents displayed increases in fidelity for each strategy and viewed the training favourably. Both children showed gains across verbal operants, as captured by a multiple baseline across behaviours design.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10882-022-09859-4.

An Evaluation of the Emergence of Untrained Academic and Applied Skills After Instruction With Video Vignettes

Applied behavior-analytic skills are derived from precise, technical, objective operational definitions and exemplars of natural phenomena. In some cases, technical behavior-analytic terminology can be challenging for students and practitioners to learn and apply given a person's individual history with the concepts. One of the conceptual areas of behavior analysis that learners tend to struggle with more than other areas is the functional account of human language or verbal behavior. We used an emergent-responding training protocol with freely available and easy-to-implement web-based learning tools to teach the terms and definitions of Skinner's taxonomy of verbal operants using video exemplars and mixed response forms to six graduate students. We also tested for the emergence of untrained applied clinical skills in the form of collecting data while watching novel real-world video exemplars. We found that the video-based training system reliably resulted in the emergence of untrained responding and generalization to novel stimuli and responses and that the skills were maintained by four out of six participants for 2 weeks. In addition, the applied skills performances of the participants were comparable to students who received traditional training in verbal behavior, slightly lower than the performances of Board Certified Behavior Analysts, and considerably lower than the performances of doctoral-level BCBAs. When compared to other published research that used emergent-responding training protocols, the current study required more training time on average but resulted in better performances during some maintenance probes. A brief conceptual analysis of our data is presented, as well as recommendations for future research.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40616-020-00140-3.

Tact instruction for children with autism spectrum disorder: A review

Tacts facilitate social interaction, and a strong tact repertoire can lead to the development of other verbal operants. For children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the development of a tact repertoire can reduce stereotypical and repetitive language and increase social communication, as functional language may reduce the amount of stereotypical vocal behavior that children engage in. However, teaching tact repertoires to children with ASD that maintain and generalize is difficult. The current study reviewed tact interventions for children with ASD from 2000 to 2019 to provide an overview of current tact interventions, their effectiveness, and the inclusion of intervention components that may promote maintenance and generalization of learned tacts in children with ASD. Fifty-one studies were included in the review. Of the studies that met criteria for effect size calculations 87.18% of the interventions showed excellent or high effect. Although many of the studies focused more on stimulus control to answer specific research questions, some studies implemented intervention components and procedures that could promote acquisition and generalization of learned tacts in children with ASD. We discuss implications and the need to increase research regarding tact intervention components that can increase generalization in children with ASD.

Citation Analysis of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior (2008-2018)

Recent articles by the editorial board of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior (TAVB) include calls for greater integration, collaboration, and inclusion. In so doing, it may be helpful to consider TAVB's current reach. Previously, Petursdottir, Peterson, and Peters (The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 25, 109-121, 2009) described the number of citations of articles published in TAVB from 1983 to 2007. The authors found that the greatest number of references to TAVB were self-citations, followed predominantly by other behavior-analytic outlets, such as the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Here, we replicate and extend the work of Petursdottir et al. (The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 25, 109-121, 2009) by conducting a citation analysis of references included in TAVB publications from 2008 to 2018 and also report citations by these venues to TAVB. This citation analysis allows for a more recent review of those outlets that articles published in TAVB commonly reference and those that cite TAVB. Generally, self-citations predominated, with articles published in TAVB commonly referencing books and chapters. The implications of these practices on the impact of TAVB and suggestions for moving forward are considered.

Systematic Review of Verbal Operants in Speech Generating Device Research from Skinner's Analysis of Verbal Behavior

Skinner's (1957) book Verbal Behavior is a critical tool in designing effective communication programs for individuals with limited speech. The purpose of this systematic review was to analyze the speech generating device (SGD) research literature from Skinner's taxonomy of primary verbal operants. An extraction procedure yielded 56 studies published between 1995 and 2018, with a total of 221 participants, most of whom had autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or an intellectual and developmental disability (IDD). The large majority of SGD studies (42) targeted multiply controlled mands, whereas only a handful of studies targeted verbal operants that were not mands. Few studies employed procedures for fading contrived sources of stimulus control to promote spontaneous responding, and few studies targeted more sophisticated, topography-based responses (e.g., typing, speech). Results of the review highlight the need for better dissemination of Skinner's Verbal Behavior, the need for research to evaluate effects of SGD in teaching a greater variety of spontaneous verbal operants, and the need to focus on application of SGD with populations beyond individuals with ASD and IDD.

An Evaluation of a Game-Based Treatment Package on Intraverbals in Young Children with Autism

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate a game-based treatment package on the acquisition of intraverbals in young children with autism. The treatment package was composed of using a listener response training game (i.e., bingo), providing verbal praise that contained the label for the listener response, and modeling a pretend play action related to the answer. During posttreatment probes, participants vocally answered wh- questions without any supplementary stimuli present and maintained responses during follow-up probes.

The importance of multiple exemplar instruction in the establishment of novel verbal behavior

According to traditional linguistic accounts language, and its generative nature, cannot be taught. From a behavior analytic perspective, language is like any other behavior; it is learned and amenable to change. Based upon Skinner's radical behavioral analysis of verbal behavior, specific procedures have been designed to promote novel verbal relations. However, despite the strength and utility of this approach, using behavioral principles to understand the generativity of language has been challenging. Dependent upon the specific theory (e.g., stimulus equivalence, relational frame theory, bidirectional naming) within the radical behavioral orientation, researchers arrange unique procedures to evaluate the variables responsible for this phenomenon. This paper presents the commonalities and differences of two procedures (i.e., multiple exemplar training, multiple exemplar instruction) with examples of research highlighting the use of both in producing generativity. Further, it describes how multiple exemplar instruction is independent from other procedures leading to this outcome, and concludes by providing recommendations for both research and practice.

The Verbal Behavior Stimulus Control Ratio Equation: a Quantification of Language

Language is a much sought-after yet elusive subject matter for scientific investigation. Entire fields of study have evolved to address the complexities of language, with most using a structural analysis as the framework for examination. Skinner (Verbal Behavior, 1957) proposed that language fell within the scope of a science of behavior and was therefore open to functional analysis and interpretation. Over the past 60 years, much has been done to further the scientific explanation, prediction, and control of verbal behavior as a function of environmental variables. However, we still need to more accurately describe the subject matter of investigation. The stimulus control ratio equation (SCoRE) is a metric to summarize a behavioral repertoire by comparing the relative frequency of its component parts. The verbal behavior SCoRE compares the observed proportions of responding against the null hypothesis to yield a statistic to describe the present level of functional performance. Such information may be useful for measuring change over time and comparing treatment effects within individuals and across groups. This article provides a conceptualization of the interdependence of the verbal operants identified by Skinner (1957), a model for analyzing the entirety of the verbal repertoire, and implications for research and practice.

(I Think) You Are Pretty: a Behavior Analytic Conceptualization of Flirtation

Much research in flirtation has been approached from a socio-cognitive perspective and has overemphasized subjective self-reports rather than overt behavior. Existing work pertinent to flirtation is reviewed here in addition to proposing a behavior-analytic perspective on the topic with a conception that includes both rule-governed and contingency-shaped behavior. Of particular interest within a verbal behavior conception of flirtation is the importance of autoclitics-features of a verbal response that affect the listener's reaction to the rest of the verbal response. Applications of a behavior analytic conception of flirtation and future directions relevant to research on interpersonal relationships are discussed.

Reflections on Verbal Behavior at 60

In the present essay, commemorating the 60th anniversary of the publication of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, I stand by and defend the judgment I expressed in my article "The Long Goodbye: Why B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior Is Alive and Well on the 50th Anniversary of Its Publication" (2008c)-that Skinner's "interpretation of the behavior of the speaker, given the contingencies of reinforcement maintained by the community" (Skinner, 1987, p. 11), is not only adequate but is also consistent with the principles of operant learning. To that I add some of my reflections on the book after having taught it for years and having written numerous articles extending Skinner's analysis to related topics.

The impact of Verbal Behavior on the scholarly literature from 2005 to 2016

B. F. Skinner's (1957) Verbal Behavior had a limited influence on empirical research in the first few decades following its publication, but an increase in empirical activity has been evident in recent years. The purpose of this article is to update previous analyses that have quantified the influence of Verbal Behavior on the scholarly literature, with an emphasis on its impact on empirical research. Study 1 was a citation analysis that showed an increase in citations to Verbal Behavior from 2005 to 2016 relative to earlier time periods. In particular, there was a large increase in citations from empirical articles. Study 2 identified empirical studies in which a verbal operant was manipulated or measured, regardless of whether or not Verbal Behavior was cited, and demonstrated a large increase in publication rate, with an increasing trend in the publication of both basic and applied experimental analyses throughout the review period. A majority of the studies were concerned with teaching verbal behavior to children with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities, but a variety of other basic and applied research topics were also represented. The results suggest a clearly increasing impact of Verbal Behavior on the experimental analysis of behavior on the 60th anniversary of the book's publication.

Empirical Application of Skinner's Verbal Behavior to Interventions for Children with Autism: A Review

Sundberg and Michael (2011) reviewed the contributions of Skinner's (1957) Verbal Behavior to the treatment of language delays in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and discussed several aspects of interventions, including mand training, intraverbal repertoire development, and the importance of using Skinner's taxonomy of verbal behavior in the clinical context. In this article, we provide an update of Sundberg and Michael's review and expand on some discussion topics. We conducted a systematic review of studies that focused on Skinner's verbal operants in interventions for children with ASD that were published from 2001 to 2017 and discussed the findings in terms of journal source, frequency, and type of verbal operant studied.

Empirical Investigations of the Intraverbal: 2005-2015

Several papers have reviewed the literature based on Skinner's conceptual framework presented in his 1957 book, Verbal Behavior. These reviews have called for more research on the topic of verbal behavior generally and often for more research on particular verbal operants. For example, Sautter and LeBlanc (2006) urged the behavior-analytic community to conduct more research on the intraverbal because of the scant existing literature base at that time. In the current review, we replicate the procedures used by Sautter and LeBlanc focusing specifically on the intraverbal relation and on the literature published in the 10 years since their call for research. We summarize the publication themes, provide graphs of the trends and types of published articles, and offer ideas for future research specific to the intraverbal.

Verbal Stimulus Control and the Intraverbal Relation

The importance of the intraverbal relation is missed in most theories of language. Skinner (1957) attributes this to traditional semantic theories of meaning that focus on the nonverbal referents of words and neglect verbal stimuli as separate sources of control for linguistic behavior. An analysis of verbal stimulus control is presented, along with its distinction from nonverbal stimulus control and motivational control. It is suggested that there are at least four different types of increasingly complex verbal discriminations relevant to speaker and listener behavior: simple, compound, verbal conditional, and verbal function-altering (Eikeseth & Smith, 2013; Schlinger & Blakely, 1994). Separate but interlocking accounts of how these specific types of verbal stimuli produce different evocative and function-altering effects for the speaker and for the listener are provided. Finally, the effects of weakening verbal stimulus control and the loss of intraverbal behavior are considered, especially as they relate to dementia, aphasia, and traumatic brain injury.

A Bibliographic Tribute to Jack Michael

"In the late 1950's, Jack Michael, a bright but irritating young psychology instructor, moved from the Universities of Kansas to Houston to Arizona State. Along the way he befriended two nontraditional students, protected them through their Ph.D. programs, and turned them loose on the world: Teodoro Ayllon…and Montrose Wolf…" (Risley, 2001, p. 267). So begins Risley's chapter on the origins of applied behavior analysis. For almost 50 years, Jack Michael provided a model for us to "talk like Skinner" and to analyze behavior as Skinner would. For this, he has been widely respected and revered. The purpose of this bibliography is to explain to new and familiar readers alike Jack's contributions to the field of behavior analysis in areas of his primary focus: (a) behavioral function taxonomy, (b) motivation, (c) reinforcement, (d) response topographies, (e) multiple control, (f) duplic and codic verbal behavior, and (g) teaching. Throughout, we weave his role in the field's history and his leadership in its expansion, as these have been additional areas of significant contributions. Above all, we wish to highlight Jack's work, in bibliographic and narrative form, in a way that expresses a heartfelt tribute on behalf of his students and others whom he influenced to learn about psychology as a natural science and to think and talk like Skinner.

Frequency of Mand Instruction Reported in Behavioral, Special Education, and Speech Journals

The authors reviewed 10 years of research literature on teaching mands to individuals with developmental disabilities. Articles were selected from journals associated with three professional organizations (e.g., Association for Behavior Analysis, Council for Exceptional Children, and American Speech and Hearing Association). Findings were reported as frequencies of publication across journals and sets of journal. Furthermore, we reported on the several contextual variables reported within each study (i.e., age of participants, setting, change agent, response topography, generalization). Implications for practitioners are discussed.

Using a Verbal Analysis of Lady Gaga's Applause as a Classroom Exercise for Teaching Verbal Behavior

Learning Skinner's (1957) verbal behavior taxonomy requires extensive study and practice. Thus, novel classroom exercises might serve this goal. The present manuscript describes a classroom exercise in which two students analyzed Lady Gaga's song Applause in terms of its metaphorical arrangements. Through the exercise, students identified various verbal operants and their subtypes, including those seldom researched by the behavioral community (see Sautter and LeBlanc 2006, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 22, 35-48), which helped them conclude that Lady Gaga's Applause is comprised of two themes: the artist taking control, and the artist-as-art.

The Clinical Application of Applied Behavior Analysis in a Child With Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

The current case study describes the longitudinal assessment of a young child diagnosed with Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder–not otherwise specified. The patient participated in an applied behavior analysis (ABA)–based Verbal Behavior treatment program to target communication impairments and functional skill deficits. Because ABA-based interventions have demonstrated efficacy in improving levels of functioning across various developmental disabilities, it was reasonable to assess the clinical utility of these same strategies when applied to a patient presenting with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and associated developmental delays. The current study relied on quasi-experimental single-subject design methods to measure treatment outcomes and to inform clinical decision making. Dependent measures in the study included standardized, norm-referenced assessments of cognitive and adaptive functioning, as well as behavioral data collected throughout treatment to measure gains across skill areas. Outcomes included rapid skill acquisition across several areas of functioning (e.g., expressive and receptive language, visual-performance, and adaptive emotional/behavioral functioning). The impact of treatment on global areas of functioning will be reported.

The Analysis of Verbal Behavior: a Status Update

We analyzed past volumes of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior (TAVB) to provide a comprehensive status update after 30 years of publication. Data on TAVB's content, frequent contributors, and scholarly impact suggest a healthy state of the journal.

The Effects of Auditory Tact and Auditory Imagining Instructions on the Emergence of Novel Intraverbals

The current research investigated whether intraverbals would emerge following auditory tact instruction. Participants were first taught to tact auditory stimuli by providing the name of the item or animal that produces the sound (e.g., saying "eagle" when presented with the recording of an eagle cawing). Following test probes for simple intraverbals as well as intraverbal categorization participants were taught to tact what each auditory stimulus is (e.g., saying "caw" when presented with the recording of an eagle cawing). Following both tact instructional phases, the effects of an auditory imagining instruction procedure on target intraverbals were examined. Results indicate that following both tact instructional phases, intraverbals increased for three of four participants. Auditory imagining instruction was sufficient for two of four participants to reach mastery criterion, and two of four participants needed some direct instruction. Low covariation between simple intraverbal and categorization was also observed. Functional interdependence between tacts and intraverbals and the possible role of a conditioned hearing response are discussed.

An Annotated Bibliography of Verbal Behavior Scholarship Published Outside of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior: 2014

This annotated bibliography summarizes journal articles on verbal behavior published outside of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, the primary journal for scholarship in this area. Seventeen such articles were published in 2014 and are annotated as a resource for practitioners, researchers, and educators.

Referent-Based Verbal Behavior Instruction for Children with Autism

Skinner's (1957) analysis of verbal behavior deconstructed language according to stimulus control. Although the functional independence of these verbal operants has been empirically demonstrated, more commonly, a speaker's verbal behavior is induced by a convergence of controlling stimuli. However, circumscribed stimulus control may inhibit the development of complex verbal repertoires for some individuals, including those with autism spectrum disorders. For this reason, in the current paper, we propose a behavior analytic intervention with the overarching goal of establishing multiple control over verbal behavior through the conditioning of referent stimuli.Referent-based instruction emphasizes teaching the operant class over specific targetsMultiple control is established by converging verbal behavior around the referentProgress is measured in terms of a stimulus control ratioEliminates arbitrary decision making.

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Recent Verbal Behavior Research on Individuals with Disabilities: a Review and Implications for Research and Practice

The number of individuals from various culture and language backgrounds who are receiving behavior-analytic services is growing. Therefore, a behavioral understanding of the role of cultural and linguistic diversity (CLD) in language acquisition may be warranted. We searched recent editions of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior and the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis to determine the degree to which researchers report the CLD of individuals with disabilities who participate in verbal behavior research. Our results indicate that researchers in these journals rarely report the culture and language background of their participants. Given these results, we provide a conceptual analysis and describe implications for research and clinical practice. A further understanding of the role of CLD may aid in the development of better behavioral interventions and culturally sensitive treatments. Finally, research that explores the role of CLD in language acquisition may add to the generality of behavior-analytic research and practice.

Teaching Tacting of Private Events Based on Public Accompaniments: Effects of Contingencies, Audience Control, and Stimulus Complexity

Our current understanding of the role of private events in the science of behavior is based largely on Skinner's natural science interpretation of private events. Skinner described public accompaniments as one source of control for a verbal community to differentially reinforce verbal behavior regarding private events. In this study, we developed an experimental analogue to study variables influencing tacting of private events. The participant had exclusive access to one set of stimuli (the private stimuli), and the experimenter attempted to teach tacts for private stimuli based on their correspondence with public stimuli accessible to both the experimenter and participant. Results of experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that reports of private stimuli were a function of degree of public-private correspondence, reinforcement contingency, and audience control. In some cases, we encountered reports controlled exclusively by public stimuli. Results of experiment 3 showed that public control was less likely when public stimuli were more complex and the experimenter had a unique behavioral history with respect to those stimuli that was not shared by the learner. The orderly patterns of data obtained suggest that analogue arrangements might be a useful, and even necessary, starting point for experimental investigations of how private events may enter into the analysis of behavior.

Improving the Conversational Skills of a College Student with Peer-Mediated Behavioral Skills Training

We used a multiple baseline design across behaviors to evaluate peer-mediated behavioral skills training to improve a complex repertoire of conversational skills of an undergraduate student diagnosed with a learning disability NOS. Following treatment, we observed a decrease in interrupting and content specificity and an increase in questioning. Treatment effects maintained with naïve peers during unstructured conversations and outcomes compared favorably with normative data on the conversational skills of three undergraduates without learning disabilities.

Emergent intraverbal responses via tact and match-to-sample instruction

The present investigation evaluated the effectiveness of category tact and match-to-sample instruction in facilitating the emergence of intraverbal responses (i.e., naming several items belonging to a specific category) for 2 children with autism. Results demonstrated the emergence of untaught responses, suggesting an effective instructional protocol for establishing intraverbal responses without direct instruction.

The Gluten-Free, Casein-Free Diet and Autism

The gluten-free, casein-free (GFCF) diet is widely used by families of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Despite its popularity, there is limited evidence in support of the diet. The purpose of this article was to identify and evaluate well-controlled studies of the GFCF diet that have been implemented with children with ASD. A review of the literature from 1999 to 2012 identified five studies meeting inclusion criteria. Research rigor was examined using an evaluative rubric and ranged from Adequate to Strong. In three of the studies, no positive effects of the diet were reported on behavior or development, even after double-blind gluten and casein trials. Two studies found positive effects after 1 year but had research quality concerns. Reasons why families continue to expend effort on GFCF diets despite limited empirical evidence are discussed. Recommendations are that families should invest time and resources in more robustly supported interventions and limit GFCF diets to children diagnosed with celiac disease or food allergies.

An evaluation of the stimulus equivalence paradigm to teach single-subject design to distance education students via Blackboard

The purpose of the current study was to examine the degree to which instruction based on stimulus equivalence procedures could be used to teach single-subject design methodology to graduate-level professionals through a Web-based course management system known as Blackboard (see http://www.blackboard.com). Specifically, we used the stimulus equivalence paradigm to teach relations among the names, definitions, graphical representations of the designs, and two practical scenarios of when it would be appropriate to implement each design. Most participants demonstrated the emergence of untaught relations, and some participants showed generalization to novel vignettes and graphs. Relations largely were not maintained at follow-up but were retaught.

Constructs and events in verbal behavior

Skinner's (1957) analysis of verbal behavior has been the subject of much controversy in recent years. While criticism has historically come from outside the field of behavior analysis, there are now well-articulated arguments against Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior from within the field as well. Recently, advocates of Skinner's analysis have attempted to respond to the critiques, particularly to those regarding Skinner's definition of verbal behavior articulated by proponents of relational frame theory. Specifically, it has been suggested that talk about definitions equates to making the essentialist error. This paper provides an overview of these issues in the context of understanding the role of constructs in science more generally. It will be argued that definitions are central to scientific progress, and are not only relevant to a functional analysis, but a central prerequisite to the pursuit of such an analysis.