Direct evidence that the N-terminal extensions of the TAP complex act as autonomous interaction scaffolds for the assembly of the MHC I peptide-loading complex

Structure of an MHC I–tapasin–ERp57 editing complex defines chaperone promiscuity

Adaptive immunity depends on cell surface presentation of antigenic peptides by major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules and on stringent ER quality control in the secretory pathway. The chaperone tapasin in conjunction with the oxidoreductase ERp57 is crucial for MHC I assembly and for shaping the epitope repertoire for high immunogenicity. However, how the tapasin–ERp57 complex engages MHC I clients has not yet been determined at atomic detail. Here, we present the 2.7-Å crystal structure of a tapasin–ERp57 heterodimer in complex with peptide-receptive MHC I. Our study unveils molecular details of client recognition by the multichaperone complex and highlights elements indispensable for peptide proofreading. The structure of this transient ER quality control complex provides the mechanistic basis for the selector function of tapasin and showcases how the numerous MHC I allomorphs are chaperoned during peptide loading and editing.

Adaptive immunity depends on cellular chaperone and quality control systems that are decisive for an effective presentation of foreign antigens via MHC I molecules. Here, the authors present the structure of a key chaperone-MHC I complex.

Offense and Defense in Granulomatous Inflammation Disease

Granulomatous inflammation (GI) diseases are a group of chronic inflammation disorders characterized by focal collections of multinucleated giant cells, epithelioid cells and macrophages, with or without necrosis. GI diseases are closely related to microbes, especially virulent intracellular bacterial infections are important factors in the progression of these diseases. They employ a range of strategies to survive the stresses imposed upon them and persist in host cells, becoming the initiator of the fighting. Microbe-host communication is essential to maintain functions of a healthy host, so defense capacity of hosts is another influence factor, which is thought to combine to determine the result of the fighting. With the development of gene research technology, many human genetic loci were identified to be involved in GI diseases susceptibility, providing more insights into and knowledge about GI diseases. The current review aims to provide an update on the most recent progress in the identification and characterization of bacteria in GI diseases in a variety of organ systems and clinical conditions, and examine the invasion and escape mechanisms of pathogens that have been demonstrated in previous studies, we also review the existing data on the predictive factors of the host, mainly on genetic findings. These strategies may improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying GI diseases, and open new avenues for the study of the associated conditions in the future.

Structural and Mechanistic Principles of ABC Transporters

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters constitute one of the largest and most ancient protein superfamilies found in all living organisms. They function as molecular machines by coupling ATP binding, hydrolysis, and phosphate release to translocation of diverse substrates across membranes. The substrates range from vitamins, steroids, lipids, and ions to peptides, proteins, polysaccharides, and xenobiotics. ABC transporters undergo substantial conformational changes during substrate translocation. A comprehensive understanding of their inner workings thus requires linking these structural rearrangements to the different functional state transitions. Recent advances in single-particle cryogenic electron microscopy have not only delivered crucial information on the architecture of several medically relevant ABC transporters and their supramolecular assemblies, including the ATP-sensitive potassium channel and the peptide-loading complex, but also made it possible to explore the entire conformational space of these nanomachines under turnover conditions and thereby gain detailed mechanistic insights into their mode of action.

MHC I assembly and peptide editing - chaperones, clients, and molecular plasticity in immunity

Peptides presented on MHC I molecules allow the immune system to detect diseased cells. The displayed peptides typically stem from proteasomal degradation of cytoplasmic proteins and are translocated into the ER lumen where they are trimmed and loaded onto MHC I. Peptide translocation is carried out by the transporter associated with antigen processing, which forms the central building block of a dynamic assembly called the peptide-loading complex (PLC). By coordinating peptide transfer with MHC I loading and peptide optimization, the PLC is a linchpin in the adaptive immune system. Peptide loading and optimization is catalyzed by the PLC component tapasin and the PLC-independent TAPBPR, two MHC I-dedicated enzymes chaperoning empty or suboptimally loaded MHC I and selecting stable peptide-MHC I complexes in a process called peptide editing or proofreading. Recent structural and functional studies of peptide editing have dramatically improved our understanding of this pivotal event in antigen processing/presentation. This review is dedicated to Vincenzo Cerundolo (1959-2020) for his pioneering work in the field of antigen processing/presentation.

Current Insights in Genetics of Sarcoidosis: Functional and Clinical Impacts

Sarcoidosis is a complex disease that belongs to the vast group of autoinflammatory disorders, but the etiological mechanisms of which are not known. At the crosstalk of environmental, infectious, and genetic factors, sarcoidosis is a multifactorial disease that requires a multidisciplinary approach for which genetic research, in particular, next generation sequencing (NGS) tools, has made it possible to identify new pathways and propose mechanistic hypotheses. Codified treatments for the disease cannot always respond to the most progressive forms and the identification of new genetic and metabolic tracks is a challenge for the future management of the most severe patients. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding the genes identified by both genome wide association studies (GWAS) and whole exome sequencing (WES), as well the connection of these pathways with the current research on sarcoidosis immune-related disorders.

ATP-binding Cassette Exporters: Structure and Mechanism with a Focus on P-glycoprotein and MRP1

BACKGROUND

Proteins that belong to the ATP-binding cassette superfamily include transporters that mediate the efflux of substrates from cells. Among these exporters, P-glycoprotein and MRP1 are involved in cancer multidrug resistance, protection from endo and xenobiotics, determination of drug pharmacokinetics, and the pathophysiology of a variety of disorders.

OBJECTIVE

To review the information available on ATP-binding cassette exporters, with a focus on Pglycoprotein, MRP1 and related proteins. We describe tissue localization and function of these transporters in health and disease, and discuss the mechanisms of substrate transport. We also correlate recent structural information with the function of the exporters, and discuss details of their molecular mechanism with a focus on the nucleotide-binding domains.

METHODS

Evaluation of selected publications on the structure and function of ATP-binding cassette proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

Conformational changes on the nucleotide-binding domains side of the exporters switch the accessibility of the substrate-binding pocket between the inside and outside, which is coupled to substrate efflux. However, there is no agreement on the magnitude and nature of the changes at the nucleotide- binding domains side that drive the alternate-accessibility. Comparison of the structures of Pglycoprotein and MRP1 helps explain differences in substrate selectivity and the bases for polyspecificity. P-glycoprotein substrates are hydrophobic and/or weak bases, and polyspecificity is explained by a flexible hydrophobic multi-binding site that has a few acidic patches. MRP1 substrates are mostly organic acids, and its polyspecificity is due to a single bipartite binding site that is flexible and displays positive charge.

Moving the Cellular Peptidome by Transporters

Living matter is defined by metastability, implying a tightly balanced synthesis and turnover of cellular components. The first step of eukaryotic protein degradation via the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) leads to peptides, which are subsequently degraded to single amino acids by an armada of proteases. A small fraction of peptides, however, escapes further cytosolic destruction and is transported by ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lysosomes. The ER-resident heterodimeric transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a crucial component in adaptive immunity for the transport and loading of peptides onto major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules. Although the function of the lysosomal resident homodimeric TAPL-like (TAPL) remains, until today, only loosely defined, an involvement in immune defense is anticipated since it is highly expressed in dendritic cells and macrophages. Here, we compare the gene organization and the function of single domains of both peptide transporters. We highlight the structural organization, the modes of substrate binding and translocation as well as physiological functions of both organellar transporters.

Luminescence resonance energy transfer spectroscopy of ATP-binding cassette proteins

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily includes regulatory and transport proteins. Most human ABC exporters pump substrates out of cells using energy from ATP hydrolysis. Although major advances have been made toward understanding the molecular mechanism of ABC exporters, there are still many issues unresolved. During the last few years, luminescence resonance energy transfer has been used to detect conformational changes in real time, with atomic resolution, in isolated ABC nucleotide binding domains (NBDs) and full-length ABC exporters. NBDs are particularly interesting because they provide the power stroke for substrate transport. Luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) is a spectroscopic technique that can provide dynamic information with atomic-resolution of protein conformational changes under physiological conditions. Using LRET, it has been shown that NBD dimerization, a critical step in ABC proteins catalytic cycle, requires binding of ATP to two nucleotide binding sites. However, hydrolysis at just one of the sites can drive dissociation of the NBD dimer. It was also found that the NBDs of the bacterial ABC exporter MsbA reconstituted in a lipid bilayer membrane and studied at 37°C never separate as much as suggested by crystal structures. This observation stresses the importance of performing structural/functional studies of ABC exporters under physiologic conditions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Beyond the Structure-Function Horizon of Membrane Proteins edited by Ute Hellmich, Rupak Doshi and Benjamin McIlwain.

Structure of the transporter associated with antigen processing trapped by herpes simplex virus

The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter essential to cellular immunity against viral infection. Some persistent viruses have evolved strategies to inhibit TAP so that they may go undetected by the immune system. The herpes simplex virus for example evades immune surveillance by blocking peptide transport with a small viral protein ICP47. In this study, we determined the structure of human TAP bound to ICP47 by electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) to 4.0 Å. The structure shows that ICP47 traps TAP in an inactive conformation distinct from the normal transport cycle. The specificity and potency of ICP47 inhibition result from contacts between the tip of the helical hairpin and the apex of the transmembrane cavity. This work provides a clear molecular description of immune evasion by a persistent virus. It also establishes the molecular structure of TAP to facilitate mechanistic studies of the antigen presentation process.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21829.001

Assembly of the MHC I peptide-loading complex determined by a conserved ionic lock-switch

Salt bridges in lipid bilayers play a decisive role in the dynamic assembly and downstream signaling of the natural killer and T-cell receptors. Here, we describe the identification of an inter-subunit salt bridge in the membrane within yet another key component of the immune system, the peptide-loading complex (PLC). The PLC regulates cell surface presentation of self-antigens and antigenic peptides via molecules of the major histocompatibility complex class I. We demonstrate that a single salt bridge in the membrane between the transporter associated with antigen processing TAP and the MHC I-specific chaperone tapasin is essential for the assembly of the PLC and for efficient MHC I antigen presentation. Molecular modeling and all-atom molecular dynamics simulations suggest an ionic lock-switch mechanism for the binding of TAP to tapasin, in which an unfavorable uncompensated charge in the ER-membrane is prevented through complex formation. Our findings not only deepen the understanding of the interaction network within the PLC, but also provide evidence for a general interaction principle of dynamic multiprotein membrane complexes in immunity.

Transport and quality control of MHC class I molecules in the early secretory pathway

Folding and peptide binding of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules have been thoroughly researched, but the mechanistic connection between these biochemical events and the progress of class I through the early secretory pathway is much less well understood. This review focuses on the question how the partially assembled forms of class I (which lack high-affinity peptide and/or the light chain beta-2 microglobulin) are retained inside the cell. Such investigations offer researchers exciting chances to understand the connections between class I structure, conformational dynamics, peptide binding kinetics and thermodynamics, intracellular transport, and antigen presentation.

A negative feedback modulator of antigen processing evolved from a frameshift in the cowpox virus genome

Coevolution of viruses and their hosts represents a dynamic molecular battle between the immune system and viral factors that mediate immune evasion. After the abandonment of smallpox vaccination, cowpox virus infections are an emerging zoonotic health threat, especially for immunocompromised patients. Here we delineate the mechanistic basis of how cowpox viral CPXV012 interferes with MHC class I antigen processing. This type II membrane protein inhibits the coreTAP complex at the step after peptide binding and peptide-induced conformational change, in blocking ATP binding and hydrolysis. Distinct from other immune evasion mechanisms, TAP inhibition is mediated by a short ER-lumenal fragment of CPXV012, which results from a frameshift in the cowpox virus genome. Tethered to the ER membrane, this fragment mimics a high ER-lumenal peptide concentration, thus provoking a trans-inhibition of antigen translocation as supply for MHC I loading. These findings illuminate the evolution of viral immune modulators and the basis of a fine-balanced regulation of antigen processing.

Virus-infected or malignant transformed cells are eliminated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which recognize antigenic peptide epitopes in complex with major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules at the cell surface. The majority of such peptides are derived from proteasomal degradation in the cytosol and are then translocated into the ER lumen in an energy-consuming reaction via the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), which delivers the peptides onto MHC I molecules as final acceptors. Viruses have evolved sophisticated strategies to escape this immune surveillance. Here we show that the cowpox viral protein CPXV012 inhibits the ER peptide translocation machinery by allosterically blocking ATP binding and hydrolysis by TAP. The short ER resident active domain of the viral protein evolved from a reading frame shift in the cowpox virus genome and exploits the ER-lumenal negative feedback peptide sensor of TAP. This CPXV012-induced conformational arrest of TAP is signaled by a unique communication across the ER membrane to the cytosolic motor domains of the peptide pump. Furthermore, this study provides the rare opportunity to decipher on a molecular level how nature plays hide and seek with a pathogen and its host.

Classical and non-classical MHC I molecule manipulation by human cytomegalovirus: so many targets—but how many arrows in the quiver?

Major mechanisms for the recognition of pathogens by immune cells have evolved to employ classical and non-classical major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules. Classical MHC I molecules present antigenic peptide ligands on infected cells to CD8⁺ T cells, whereas a key function for non-classical MHC I molecules is to mediate inhibitory or activating stimuli in natural killer (NK) cells. The structural diversity of MHC I puts immense pressure on persisting viruses, including cytomegaloviruses. The very large coding capacity of the human cytomegalovirus allows it to express a whole arsenal of immunoevasive factors assigned to individual MHC class I targets. This review summarizes achievements from more than two decades of intense research on how human cytomegalovirus manipulates MHC I molecules and escapes elimination by the immune system.

Mechanistic determinants of the directionality and energetics of active export by a heterodimeric ABC transporter

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) participates in immune surveillance by moving proteasomal products into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen for major histocompatibility complex class I loading and cell surface presentation to cytotoxic T cells. Here we delineate the mechanistic basis for antigen translocation. Notably, TAP works as a molecular diode, translocating peptide substrates against the gradient in a strict unidirectional way. We reveal the importance of the D-loop at the dimer interface of the two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) in coupling substrate translocation with ATP hydrolysis and defining transport vectoriality. Substitution of the conserved aspartate, which coordinates the ATP-binding site, decreases NBD dimerization affinity and turns the unidirectional primary active pump into a passive bidirectional nucleotide-gated facilitator. Thus, ATP hydrolysis is not required for translocation per se, but is essential for both active and unidirectional transport. Our data provide detailed mechanistic insight into how heterodimeric ABC exporters operate.

Assembly and function of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) I peptide-loading complex are conserved across higher vertebrates

Antigen presentation to cytotoxic T lymphocytes via major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules depends on the heterodimeric transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). For efficient antigen supply to MHC I molecules in the ER, TAP assembles a macromolecular peptide-loading complex (PLC) by recruiting tapasin. In evolution, TAP appeared together with effector cells of adaptive immunity at the transition from jawless to jawed vertebrates and diversified further within the jawed vertebrates. Here, we compared TAP function and interaction with tapasin of a range of species within two classes of jawed vertebrates. We found that avian and mammalian TAP1 and TAP2 form heterodimeric complexes across taxa. Moreover, the extra N-terminal domain TMD0 of mammalian TAP1 and TAP2 as well as avian TAP2 recruits tapasin. Strikingly, however, only TAP1 and TAP2 from the same taxon can form a functional heterodimeric translocation complex. These data demonstrate that the dimerization interface between TAP1 and TAP2 and the tapasin docking sites for PLC assembly are conserved in evolution, whereas elements of antigen translocation diverged later in evolution and are thus taxon specific.

An annular lipid belt is essential for allosteric coupling and viral inhibition of the antigen translocation complex TAP (transporter associated with antigen processing)

The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) constitutes a focal element in the adaptive immune response against infected or malignantly transformed cells. TAP shuttles proteasomal degradation products into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum for loading of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. Here, the heterodimeric TAP complex was purified and reconstituted in nanodiscs in defined stoichiometry. We demonstrate that a single heterodimeric core-TAP complex is active in peptide binding, which is tightly coupled to ATP hydrolysis. Notably, with increasing peptide length, the ATP turnover was gradually decreased, revealing that ATP hydrolysis is coupled to the movement of peptide through the ATP-binding cassette transporter. In addition, all-atom molecular dynamics simulations show that the observed 22 lipids are sufficient to form an annular belt surrounding the TAP complex. This lipid belt is essential for high affinity inhibition by the herpesvirus immune evasin ICP47. In conclusion, nanodiscs are a powerful approach to study the important role of lipids as well as the function, interaction, and modulation of the antigen translocation machinery.

ABC transporters in adaptive immunity

BACKGROUND

ABC transporters ubiquitously found in all kingdoms of life move a broad range of solutes across membranes. Crystal structures of four distinct types of ABC transport systems have been solved, shedding light on different conformational states within the transport process. Briefly, ATP-dependent flipping between inward- and outward-facing conformations allows directional transport of various solutes.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

The heterodimeric transporter associated with antigen processing TAP1/2 (ABCB2/3) is a crucial element of the adaptive immune system. The ABC transport complex shuttles proteasomal degradation products into the endoplasmic reticulum. These antigenic peptides are loaded onto major histocompatibility complex class I molecules and presented on the cell surface. We detail the functional modules of TAP, its ATPase and transport cycle, and its interaction with and modulation by other cellular components. In particular, we emphasize how viral factors inhibit TAP activity and thereby prevent detection of the infected host cell by cytotoxic T-cells.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Merging functional details on TAP with structural insights from related ABC transporters refines the understanding of solute transport. Although human ABC transporters are extremely diverse, they still may employ conceptually related transport mechanisms. Appropriately, we delineate a working model of the transport cycle and how viral factors arrest TAP in distinct conformations.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Deciphering the transport cycle of human ABC proteins is the major issue in the field. The defined peptidic substrate, various inhibitory viral factors, and its role in adaptive immunity provide unique tools for the investigation of TAP, making it an ideal model system for ABC transporters in general. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Structural biochemistry and biophysics of membrane proteins.

Three tapasin docking sites in TAP cooperate to facilitate transporter stabilization and heterodimerization

The TAP translocates peptide Ags into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum for loading onto MHC class I molecules. MHC class I acquires its peptide cargo in the peptide loading complex, an oligomeric complex that the chaperone tapasin organizes by bridging TAP to MHC class I and recruiting accessory molecules such as ERp57 and calreticulin. Three tapasin binding sites on TAP have been described, two of which are located in the N-terminal domains of TAP1 and TAP2. The third binding site is present in the core transmembrane (TM) domain of TAP1 and is used only by the unassembled subunits. Tapasin is required to promote TAP stability, but through which binding site(s) it is acting is unknown. In particular, the role of tapasin binding to the core TM domain of TAP1 single chains is mysterious because this interaction is lost upon TAP2 association. In this study, we map the respective binding site in TAP1 to the polar face of the amphipathic TM helix TM9 and identify key residues that are essential to establish the interaction. We find that this interaction is dispensable for the peptide transport function but essential to achieve full stability of human TAP1. The interaction is also required for proper heterodimerization of the transporter. Based on similar results obtained using TAP mutants that lack tapasin binding to either N-terminal domain, we conclude that all three tapasin-binding sites in TAP cooperate to achieve high transporter stability and efficient heterodimerization.

The MHC I loading complex: a multitasking machinery in adaptive immunity

Recognition and elimination of virally or malignantly transformed cells are pivotal tasks of the adaptive immune system. For efficient immune detection, snapshots of the cellular proteome are presented as epitopes on major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules for recognition by cytotoxic T cells. Knowledge about the track from the equivocal protein to the presentation of antigenic peptides has greatly expanded, leading to an astonishingly elaborate understanding of the MHC I peptide loading pathway. Here, we summarize the current view on this complex process, which involves ABC transporters, proteases, chaperones, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) quality control. The contribution of individual proteins and subcomplexes is discussed, with a focus on the architecture and dynamics of the key player in the pathway, the peptide-loading complex (PLC).

Molecular architecture of the MHC I peptide-loading complex: one tapasin molecule is essential and sufficient for antigen processing

The loading of antigen-derived peptides onto MHC class I molecules for presentation to cytotoxic T cells is a key process in adaptive immune defense. Loading of MHC I is achieved by a sophisticated machinery, the peptide-loading complex (PLC), which is organized around the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) with the help of several auxiliary proteins. As an essential adapter protein recruiting MHC I molecules to TAP, tapasin catalyzes peptide loading of MHC I. However, the exact stoichiometry and basic molecular architecture of TAP and tapasin within the PLC remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that two tapasin molecules are assembled in the PLC, with one tapasin bound to each TAP subunit. However, one tapasin molecule bound either to TAP1 or TAP2 is sufficient for efficient MHC I antigen presentation. By specifically blocking the interaction between tapasin-MHC I complexes and the translocation complex TAP, the MHC I surface expression is impaired to the same extent as with soluble tapasin. Thus, the proximity of the peptide supplier TAP to the acceptor MHC I is crucial for antigen processing. In summary, the human PLC consists maximally of 2× tapasin-ERp57/MHC I per TAP complex, but one tapasin-ERp57/MHC I in the PLC is essential and sufficient for antigen processing.

Dynamics of major histocompatibility complex class I association with the human peptide-loading complex

Although the human peptide-loading complex (PLC) is required for optimal major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) antigen presentation, its composition is still incompletely understood. The ratio of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) and MHC I to tapasin, which is responsible for MHC I recruitment and peptide binding optimization, is particularly critical for modeling of the PLC. Here, we characterized the stoichiometry of the human PLC using both biophysical and biochemical approaches. By means of single-molecule pulldown (SiMPull), we determined a TAP/tapasin ratio of 1:2, consistent with previous studies of insect-cell microsomes, rat-human chimeric cells, and HeLa cells expressing truncated TAP subunits. We also report that the tapasin/MHC I ratio varies, with the PLC population comprising both 2:1 and 2:2 complexes, based on mutational and co-precipitation studies. The MHC I-saturated PLC may be particularly prevalent among peptide-selective alleles, such as HLA-C4. Additionally, MHC I association with the PLC increases when its peptide supply is reduced by inhibiting the proteasome or by blocking TAP-mediated peptide transport using viral inhibitors. Taken together, our results indicate that the composition of the human PLC varies under normal conditions and dynamically adapts to alterations in peptide supply that may arise during viral infection. These findings improve our understanding of the quality control of MHC I peptide loading and may aid the structural and functional modeling of the human PLC.