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Lingampelly SS, Naviaux JC, Heuer LS, Monk JM, Li K, Wang L, Haapanen L, Kelland CA, Van de Water J, Naviaux RK. Metabolic network analysis of pre-ASD newborns and 5-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder. Commun Biol 2024; 7:536. [PMID: 38729981 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06102-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Classical metabolomic and new metabolic network methods were used to study the developmental features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in newborns (n = 205) and 5-year-old children (n = 53). Eighty percent of the metabolic impact in ASD was caused by 14 shared biochemical pathways that led to decreased anti-inflammatory and antioxidant defenses, and to increased physiologic stress molecules like lactate, glycerol, cholesterol, and ceramides. CIRCOS plots and a new metabolic network parameter,V ° net, revealed differences in both the kind and degree of network connectivity. Of 50 biochemical pathways and 450 polar and lipid metabolites examined, the developmental regulation of the purine network was most changed. Purine network hub analysis revealed a 17-fold reversal in typically developing children. This purine network reversal did not occur in ASD. These results revealed previously unknown metabolic phenotypes, identified new developmental states of the metabolic correlation network, and underscored the role of mitochondrial functional changes, purine metabolism, and purinergic signaling in autism spectrum disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sai Sachin Lingampelly
- The Mitochondrial and Metabolic Disease Center, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
| | - Jane C Naviaux
- The Mitochondrial and Metabolic Disease Center, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
| | - Luke S Heuer
- The UC Davis MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Jonathan M Monk
- The Mitochondrial and Metabolic Disease Center, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
| | - Kefeng Li
- The Mitochondrial and Metabolic Disease Center, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
- Macao Polytechnic University, Macau, China
| | - Lin Wang
- The Mitochondrial and Metabolic Disease Center, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA
| | - Lori Haapanen
- The UC Davis MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Chelsea A Kelland
- The UC Davis MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Judy Van de Water
- The UC Davis MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Rheumatology and Allergy, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Robert K Naviaux
- The Mitochondrial and Metabolic Disease Center, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA.
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA.
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, 92103-8467, USA.
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Duché G, Sanderson JM. The Chemical Reactivity of Membrane Lipids. Chem Rev 2024; 124:3284-3330. [PMID: 38498932 PMCID: PMC10979411 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
It is well-known that aqueous dispersions of phospholipids spontaneously assemble into bilayer structures. These structures have numerous applications across chemistry and materials science and form the fundamental structural unit of the biological membrane. The particular environment of the lipid bilayer, with a water-poor low dielectric core surrounded by a more polar and better hydrated interfacial region, gives the membrane particular biophysical and physicochemical properties and presents a unique environment for chemical reactions to occur. Many different types of molecule spanning a range of sizes, from dissolved gases through small organics to proteins, are able to interact with membranes and promote chemical changes to lipids that subsequently affect the physicochemical properties of the bilayer. This Review describes the chemical reactivity exhibited by lipids in their membrane form, with an emphasis on conditions where the lipids are well hydrated in the form of bilayers. Key topics include the following: lytic reactions of glyceryl esters, including hydrolysis, aminolysis, and transesterification; oxidation reactions of alkenes in unsaturated fatty acids and sterols, including autoxidation and oxidation by singlet oxygen; reactivity of headgroups, particularly with reactive carbonyl species; and E/Z isomerization of alkenes. The consequences of reactivity for biological activity and biophysical properties are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genevieve Duché
- Génie
Enzimatique et Cellulaire, Université
Technologique de Compiègne, Compiègne 60200, France
| | - John M Sanderson
- Chemistry
Department, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
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Yazdani M. Tear film lipid layer and corneal oxygenation: a new function? Eye (Lond) 2023; 37:3534-3541. [PMID: 37138094 PMCID: PMC10686381 DOI: 10.1038/s41433-023-02557-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The classic model of tear film is composed of mucin layer, aqueous layer and the outermost tear film lipid layer (TFLL). The complex mixture of different classes of lipids, mainly secreted by meibomian glands, gives the TFLL unique physicochemical properties. Based on these properties, several functions of TFLL have been found and/or proposed such as the resistance to evaporation and facilitating the formation of a thin film. However, the role of TFLL in the oxygenation of the cornea, a transparent avascular tissue, has never been discussed in the literature. The continuous metabolic activity of the corneal surface and the replenishment of atmospheric gas creates an O2 gradient in the tear film. The molecules of O2 must therefore be transferred from the gas phase to the liquid phase through the TFLL. This process is a function of the diffusion and solubility of the lipid layer as well as interface transfer, which is influenced by alterations in the physical state and lipid composition. In the absence of research on TFLL, the present paper aims to bring the topic into the spotlight for the first time based on existing knowledge on O2 permeability of the lipid membranes and evaporation resistance of the lipid layers. The oxidative stress generated in perturbed lipid layers and the consequent adverse effects are also covered. The function of the TFLL proposed here intends to encourage future research in both basic and clinical sciences, e.g., opening new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of ocular surface conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mazyar Yazdani
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, 0027, Oslo, Norway.
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Amiri FA, Zhang J. Numerical analysis of oxygen uptake processes by red blood cells in stopped-flow measurements: Effects of cell shape, membrane permeability and unstirred layer. Med Eng Phys 2023; 121:104057. [PMID: 37985019 DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2023.104057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
The transport process of oxygen and other gas species across red blood cell (RBC) membrane is of great importance for better understanding the critical biological functions of RBCs, and the stopped-flow experiments have often been employed for such investigations. In previous stopped-flow analyses, the RBC had usually been represented by a spherical capsule based on the RBC volume, and an assumed unstirred layer (USL) thickness had been used to determine the membrane permeability. In this research, unlike these previous studies, we simulate the oxygen uptake process with different RBC shapes (shperical, ellipsoidal and biconcave) and examine the effects of USL thickness and membrane permeability over broad ranges based on literature values. Our results show that the excess membrane area can greatly improve the oxygen transport efficiency, and a same uptake half-time can be obtained using different combinations of USL thickness and membrane permeability. These findings raise concerns on the reliability and uncertainty for the results and conclusions in previous studies, and also call for more complete numerical models, for example, with the fluid flow and cell deformation considered, and more in-depth investigations on the oxygen transport processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhad A Amiri
- Bharti School of Engineering and Computer Science, Laurentian University, 935 Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury, Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada
| | - Junfeng Zhang
- Bharti School of Engineering and Computer Science, Laurentian University, 935 Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury, Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada.
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Snyder J, Wu Z. Origins of nervous tissue susceptibility to ferroptosis. CELL INSIGHT 2023; 2:100091. [PMID: 37398634 PMCID: PMC10308196 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellin.2023.100091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Ferroptosis is a newly defined form of programmed cell death. It possesses unique processes of cell demise, cytopathological changes, and independent signal regulation pathways. Ferroptosis is considered to be deeply involved in the development of many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegeneration. Intriguingly, why cells in certain tissues and organs (such as the central nervous system, CNS) are more sensitive to changes in ferroptosis remains a question that has not been carefully discussed. In this Holmesian review, we discuss lipid composition as a potential but often overlooked determining factor in ferroptosis sensitivity and the role of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the pathogenesis of several common human neurodegenerative diseases. In subsequent studies of ferroptosis, lipid composition needs to be given special attention, as it may significantly affect the susceptibility of the cell model used (or the tissue studied).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Snyder
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dedman College of Humanities and Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, 75275, USA
| | - Zhihao Wu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dedman College of Humanities and Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, 75275, USA
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Naviaux RK. Mitochondrial and metabolic features of salugenesis and the healing cycle. Mitochondrion 2023; 70:131-163. [PMID: 37120082 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2023.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenesis and salugenesis are the first and second stages of the two-stage problem of disease production and health recovery. Salugenesis is the automatic, evolutionarily conserved, ontogenetic sequence of molecular, cellular, organ system, and behavioral changes that is used by living systems to heal. It is a whole-body process that begins with mitochondria and the cell. The stages of salugenesis define a circle that is energy- and resource-consuming, genetically programmed, and environmentally responsive. Energy and metabolic resources are provided by mitochondrial and metabolic transformations that drive the cell danger response (CDR) and create the three phases of the healing cycle: Phase 1-Inflammation, Phase 2-Proliferation, and Phase 3-Differentiation. Each phase requires a different mitochondrial phenotype. Without different mitochondria there can be no healing. The rise and fall of extracellular ATP (eATP) signaling is a key driver of the mitochondrial and metabolic reprogramming required to progress through the healing cycle. Sphingolipid and cholesterol-enriched membrane lipid rafts act as rheostats for tuning cellular sensitivity to purinergic signaling. Abnormal persistence of any phase of the CDR inhibits the healing cycle, creates dysfunctional cellular mosaics, causes the symptoms of chronic disease, and accelerates the process of aging. New research reframes the rising tide of chronic disease around the world as a systems problem caused by the combined action of pathogenic triggers and anthropogenic factors that interfere with the mitochondrial functions needed for healing. Once chronic pain, disability, or disease is established, salugenesis-based therapies will start where pathogenesis-based therapies end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert K Naviaux
- The Mitochondrial and Metabolic Disease Center, Departments of Medicine, and Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, 214 Dickinson St., Bldg CTF, Rm C107, MC#8467, San Diego, CA 92103.
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Al-Samir S, Yildirim AÖ, Sidhaye VK, King LS, Breves G, Conlon TM, Stoeger C, Gailus-Durner V, Fuchs H, Hrabé de Angelis M, Gros G, Endeward V. Aqp5 -/- mice exhibit reduced maximal body O 2 consumption under cold exposure, normal pulmonary gas exchange, and impaired formation of brown adipose tissue. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2023; 324:R109-R119. [PMID: 36409022 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00130.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The fundamental body functions that determine maximal O2 uptake (V̇o2max) have not been studied in Aqp5-/- mice (aquaporin 5, AQP5). We measured V̇o2max to globally assess these functions and then investigated why it was found altered in Aqp5-/- mice. V̇o2max was measured by the Helox technique, which elicits maximal metabolic rate by intense cold exposure of the animals. We found V̇o2max reduced in Aqp5-/- mice by 20%-30% compared with wild-type (WT) mice. As AQP5 has been implicated to act as a membrane channel for respiratory gases, we studied whether this is caused by the known lack of AQP5 in the alveolar epithelial membranes of Aqp5-/- mice. Lung function parameters as well as arterial O2 saturation were normal and identical between Aqp5-/- and WT mice, indicating that AQP5 does not contribute to pulmonary O2 exchange. The cause for the decreased V̇o2max thus might be found in decreased O2 consumption of an intensely O2-consuming peripheral organ such as activated brown adipose tissue (BAT). We found indeed that absence of AQP5 greatly reduces the amount of interscapular BAT formed in response to 4 wk of cold exposure, from 63% in WT to 25% in Aqp5-/- animals. We conclude that lack of AQP5 does not affect pulmonary O2 exchange, but greatly inhibits transformation of white to brown adipose tissue. As under cold exposure, BAT is a major source of the animals' heat production, reduction of BAT likely causes the decrease in V̇o2max under this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samer Al-Samir
- Zentrum Physiologie, AG Vegetative Physiologie, Medizinische Hochschule, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ali Önder Yildirim
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center, Institute of Lung Biology and Disease, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), München, Germany
| | - Venkataramana K Sidhaye
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Landon S King
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Gerhard Breves
- Institut für Physiologie und Zellbiologie, Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas M Conlon
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center, Institute of Lung Biology and Disease, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), München, Germany
| | - Claudia Stoeger
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, German Mouse Clinic, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Valerie Gailus-Durner
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, German Mouse Clinic, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Helmut Fuchs
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, German Mouse Clinic, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Martin Hrabé de Angelis
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, German Mouse Clinic, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research, Neuherberg, Germany.,Chair of Experimental Genetics, Technische Universität München School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Gerolf Gros
- Zentrum Physiologie, AG Vegetative Physiologie, Medizinische Hochschule, Hannover, Germany
| | - Volker Endeward
- Zentrum Physiologie, AG Vegetative Physiologie, Medizinische Hochschule, Hannover, Germany
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8
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Niesor EJ, Nader E, Perez A, Lamour F, Benghozi R, Remaley A, Thein SL, Connes P. Red Blood Cell Membrane Cholesterol May Be a Key Regulator of Sickle Cell Disease Microvascular Complications. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:1134. [PMID: 36422126 PMCID: PMC9694375 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12111134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cell membrane lipid composition, especially cholesterol, affects many functions of embedded enzymes, transporters and receptors in red blood cells (RBC). High membrane cholesterol content affects the RBCs' main vital function, O2 and CO2 transport and delivery, with consequences on peripheral tissue physiology and pathology. A high degree of deformability of RBCs is required to accommodate the size of micro-vessels with diameters significantly lower than RBCs. The potential therapeutic role of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) in the removal of cholesterol and its activity regarding maintenance of an optimal concentration of RBC membrane cholesterol have not been well investigated. On the contrary, the focus for HDL research has mainly been on the clearance of cholesterol accumulated in atherosclerotic macrophages and plaques. Since all interventions aiming at decreasing cardiovascular diseases by increasing the plasma level of HDL cholesterol have failed so far in large outcome studies, we reviewed the potential role of HDL to remove excess membrane cholesterol from RBC, especially in sickle cell disease (SCD). Indeed, abundant literature supports a consistent decrease in cholesterol transported by all plasma lipoproteins in SCD, in addition to HDL, low- (LDL) and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). Unexpectedly, these decreases in plasma were associated with an increase in RBC membrane cholesterol. The concentration and activity of the main enzyme involved in the removal of cholesterol and generation of large HDL particles-lecithin cholesterol ester transferase (LCAT)-are also significantly decreased in SCD. These observations might partially explain the decrease in RBC deformability, diminished gas exchange and tendency of RBCs to aggregate in SCD. We showed that incubation of RBC from SCD patients with human HDL or the HDL-mimetic peptide Fx5A improves the impaired RBC deformability and decreases intracellular reactive oxygen species levels. We propose that the main physiological role of HDL is to regulate the cholesterol/phospholipid ratio (C/PL), which is fundamental to the transport of oxygen and its delivery to peripheral tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elie Nader
- Laboratory LIBM EA7424, Vascular Biology and Red Blood Cell Team, University of Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Anne Perez
- Hartis Pharma SA Nyon, 1260 Nyon, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Alan Remaley
- National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | | | - Philippe Connes
- Laboratory LIBM EA7424, Vascular Biology and Red Blood Cell Team, University of Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
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Ma J, Gao X, Li Y, DeCoursey TE, Shull GE, Wang HS. The HVCN1 voltage-gated proton channel contributes to pH regulation in canine ventricular myocytes. J Physiol 2022; 600:2089-2103. [PMID: 35244217 PMCID: PMC9058222 DOI: 10.1113/jp282126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Intracellular pH (pHi ) regulation is crucial for cardiac function, as acidification depresses contractility and causes arrhythmias. H+ ions are generated in cardiomyocytes from metabolic processes and particularly from CO2 hydration, which has been shown to facilitate CO2 -venting from mitochondria. Currently, the NHE1 Na+ /H+ exchanger is viewed as the dominant H+ -extrusion mechanism in cardiac muscle. We show that the HVCN1 voltage-gated proton channel is present and functional in canine ventricular myocytes, and that HVCN1 and NHE1 both contribute to pHi regulation. HVCN1 provides an energetically-efficient mechanism of H+ -extrusion that would not cause Na+ -loading, which can cause pathology, and that could contribute to transport-mediated CO2 disposal. These results provide a major advance in our understanding of pHi regulation in cardiac muscle. ABSTRACT Regulation of intracellular pH (pHi ) in cardiomyocytes is crucial for cardiac function; however, currently known mechanisms for direct or indirect extrusion of acid from cardiomyocytes seem insufficient for energetically-efficient extrusion of the massive H+ loads generated under in vivo conditions. In cardiomyocytes, voltage-sensitive H+ channel activity mediated by the HVCN1 proton channel would be a highly efficient means of disposing of H+ , while avoiding Na+ -loading, as occurs during direct acid extrusion via Na+ /H+ exchange or indirect acid extrusion via Na+ -HCO3 - cotransport. PCR and immunoblotting demonstrated expression of HVCN1 mRNA and protein in canine heart. Patch clamp analysis of canine ventricular myocytes revealed a voltage-gated H+ current that was highly H+ -selective. The current was blocked by external Zn2+ and the HVCN1 blocker 5-chloro-2-guanidinobenzimidazole (ClGBI). Both the gating and Zn2+ blockade of the current were strongly influenced by the pH gradient across the membrane. All characteristics of the observed current were consistent with the known hallmarks of HVCN1-mediated H+ current. Inhibition of HVCN1 and the NHE1 Na+ /H+ exchanger, singly and in combination, showed that either mechanism is largely sufficient to maintain pHi in beating cardiomyocytes, but that inhibition of both activities causes rapid acidification. These results show that HVCN1 is expressed in canine ventricular myocytes and provides a major H+ -extrusion activity, with a capacity similar to that of NHE1. In the beating heart in vivo, this activity would allow Na+ -independent extrusion of H+ during each action potential and, when functionally coupled with anion transport mechanisms, could facilitate transport-mediated CO2 disposal. Abstract figure legend The HVCN1 proton channel is expressed in canine ventricular myocytes and contributes to H+ extrusion. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianyong Ma
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45267, USA
| | - Xiaoqian Gao
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45267, USA
| | - Yutian Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45267, USA
| | - Thomas E DeCoursey
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Rush University, Chicago, Illinois, 60612, USA
| | - Gary E Shull
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45267, USA
| | - Hong-Sheng Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45267, USA
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