Ultra-rapid management of oral anticoagulant therapy-related surgical intracranial hemorrhage

Management of Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Agents in Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding and Prevention of Gastrointestinal Bleeding

Managing gastrointestinal bleeding in patients using antithrombotic agents remains challenging in clinical practice. This review article provides a comprehensive and evidence-based approach to managing acute antithrombotic-related gastrointestinal bleeding, focusing on the triage of patients, appropriate resuscitation, and timely endoscopy. The latest clinical practice guidelines are highlighted to guide decisions concerning the use of reversal agents, temporary interruption, and resumption of antithrombotic drugs. Additionally, preventive measures are discussed to lower the risk of future bleeding and minimize complications among patients prescribed antithrombotic drugs.

Early Goal-Directed Hemostatic Therapy for Severe Acute Bleeding Management in the Intensive Care Unit: A Narrative Review

This is a narrative review of the published evidence for bleeding management in critically ill patients in different clinical settings in the intensive care unit (ICU). We aimed to describe "The Ten Steps" approach to early goal-directed hemostatic therapy (EGDHT) using point-of-care testing (POCT), coagulation factor concentrates, and hemostatic drugs, according to the individual needs of each patient. We searched National Library of Medicine, MEDLINE for publications relevant to management of critical ill bleeding patients in different settings in the ICU. Bibliographies of included articles were also searched to identify additional relevant studies. English-language systematic reviews, meta-analyses, randomized trials, observational studies, and case reports were reviewed. Data related to study methodology, patient population, bleeding management strategy, and clinical outcomes were qualitatively evaluated. According to systematic reviews and meta-analyses, EGDHT guided by viscoelastic testing (VET) has been associated with a reduction in transfusion utilization, improved morbidity and outcome in patients with active bleeding. Furthermore, literature data showed an increased risk of severe adverse events and poor clinical outcomes with inappropriate prophylactic uses of blood components to correct altered conventional coagulation tests (CCTs). Finally, prospective, randomized, controlled trials point to the role of goal-directed fibrinogen substitution to reduce bleeding and the amount of red blood cell (RBC) transfusion with the potential to decrease mortality. In conclusion, severe acute bleeding management in the ICU is still a major challenge for intensive care physicians. The organized and sequential approach to the bleeding patient, guided by POCT allows for rapid and effective bleeding control, through the rational use of blood components and hemostatic drugs, since VET can identify specific coagulation disorders in real time, guiding hemostatic therapy with coagulation factor concentrates and hemostatic drugs with individual goals.

Rapid administration of Kcentra® during cardiopulmonary arrest

We present a case of cardiopulmonary arrest secondary to rivaroxaban related oropharyngeal hemorrhage, which required rapid intravenous (IV) push administration of 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate (4F-PCC). Manufacturers recommend administering 4F-PCC IV at a rate of 0.12 mL/kg/min (approximately 3 units/kg/min) up to a maximum rate of 8.4 mL/min (approximately 210 units/min) [1]. The concern with rapid administration is increased potential for thromboembolic complications. There have been small studies assessing infusion rates greater than the manufacturer's recommendation with few reported thromboembolic events [2-5]. Our patient was an 81-year-old female presenting to the emergency department (ED) with sudden onset oropharyngeal hemorrhage. The patient had a pertinent history of oral and esophageal cancer and was prescribed rivaroxaban 20 mg once daily for treatment of deep vein thrombosis. Within moments of the patient arriving, she produced a large volume of blood from her nose and mouth. The source of the bleeding could not be determined, and as suctioning was attempted to clear her airway, the patient became unresponsive and pulseless. Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) procedures were initiated and 1000 mg of tranexamic acid were administered. Once the patient's active medication list was discovered, 2000 units of 4F-PCC was given as an IV push over roughly 20 s. Bleeding was controlled enough to secure the patient's airway within 5 min after 4F-PCC administration and subsequently return of spontaneous circulation was achieved. Unfortunately, the patient suffered a poor neurologic outcome and the family withdrew care after discussion with the treatment team and the patient's oncologist. This case report demonstrates rapid administration of 4F-PCC may be an effective intervention to treat immediately life threatening rivaroxaban related bleeding.

Prophylactic fresh frozen plasma versus prothrombin complex concentrate for preprocedural management of the coagulopathy of liver disease: A systematic review

Background

The optimal prophylactic preprocedural management of patients with coagulopathy due to liver disease is not known.

Objectives

Our objective was to compare the efficacy and safety of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) with prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) in the preprocedural management of patients with coagulopathy of liver disease.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review to examine published evidence regarding treatment with FFP or PCC in adults with coagulopathy of liver disease undergoing an invasive procedure. Direct comparisons and single-arm studies were eligible. Efficacy outcomes included major bleeding, mortality, and correction of prothrombin time (PT) and/or international normalized ratio (INR). Safety outcomes included thrombosis and transfusion-related complications.

Results

A total of 95 articles were identified for full-text review. Nine studies were eligible and included in the review. No randomized trials comparing FFP versus PCC were identified. Only two studies directly compared FFP versus PCC. In these studies, PCC appeared to result in higher rates of correction of PT/INR, but bleeding outcomes were not different. In the single-arm studies, bleeding events appeared low overall. Volume overload was the most common recorded adverse event in patients receiving FFP. Thromboembolic events occurred rarely, but exclusively in the PCC group. Due to heterogeneity in study definitions and bias, meta-analysis was not possible. Our study found no evidence to favor a specific product over another.

Conclusions

Insufficient data exist on the effects of FFP versus PCC administration before invasive procedures in patients with coagulopathy of liver disease to make conclusions with respect to relative efficacy or safety.

American College of Gastroenterology-Canadian Association of Gastroenterology Clinical Practice Guideline: Management of Anticoagulants and Antiplatelets During Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding and the Periendoscopic Period

We conducted systematic reviews of predefined clinical questions and used the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations approach to develop recommendations for the periendoscopic management of anticoagulant and antiplatelet drugs during acute gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding and the elective endoscopic setting. The following recommendations target patients presenting with acute GI bleeding: For patients on warfarin, we suggest against giving fresh frozen plasma or vitamin K; if needed, we suggest prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) compared with fresh frozen plasma administration; for patients on direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), we suggest against PCC administration; if on dabigatran, we suggest against the administration of idarucizumab, and if on rivaroxaban or apixaban, we suggest against andexanet alfa administration; for patients on antiplatelet agents, we suggest against platelet transfusions; and for patients on cardiac acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for secondary prevention, we suggest against holding it, but if the ASA has been interrupted, we suggest resumption on the day hemostasis is endoscopically confirmed. The following recommendations target patients in the elective (planned) endoscopy setting: For patients on warfarin, we suggest continuation as opposed to temporary interruption (1-7 days), but if it is held for procedures with high risk of GI bleeding, we suggest against bridging anticoagulation unless the patient has a mechanical heart valve; for patients on DOACs, we suggest temporarily interrupting rather than continuing these; for patients on dual antiplatelet therapy for secondary prevention, we suggest temporary interruption of the P2Y12 receptor inhibitor while continuing ASA; and if on cardiac ASA monotherapy for secondary prevention, we suggest against its interruption. Evidence was insufficient in the following settings to permit recommendations. With acute GI bleeding in patients on warfarin, we could not recommend for or against PCC administration when compared with placebo. In the elective periprocedural endoscopy setting, we could not recommend for or against temporary interruption of the P2Y12 receptor inhibitor for patients on a single P2Y12 inhibiting agent. We were also unable to make a recommendation regarding same-day resumption of the drug vs 1-7 days after the procedure among patients prescribed anticoagulants (warfarin or DOACs) or P2Y12 receptor inhibitor drugs because of insufficient evidence.

American College of Gastroenterology-Canadian Association of Gastroenterology Clinical Practice Guideline: Management of Anticoagulants and Antiplatelets During Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding and the Periendoscopic Period

We conducted systematic reviews of predefined clinical questions and used the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations approach to develop recommendations for the periendoscopic management of anticoagulant and antiplatelet drugs during acute gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding and the elective endoscopic setting. The following recommendations target patients presenting with acute GI bleeding: For patients on warfarin, we suggest against giving fresh frozen plasma or vitamin K; if needed, we suggest prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) compared with fresh frozen plasma administration; for patients on direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), we suggest against PCC administration; if on dabigatran, we suggest against the administration of idarucizumab, and if on rivaroxaban or apixaban, we suggest against andexanet alfa administration; for patients on antiplatelet agents, we suggest against platelet transfusions; and for patients on cardiac acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for secondary prevention, we suggest against holding it, but if the ASA has been interrupted, we suggest resumption on the day hemostasis is endoscopically confirmed. The following recommendations target patients in the elective (planned) endoscopy setting: For patients on warfarin, we suggest continuation as opposed to temporary interruption (1–7 days), but if it is held for procedures with high risk of GI bleeding, we suggest against bridging anticoagulation unless the patient has a mechanical heart valve; for patients on DOACs, we suggest temporarily interrupting rather than continuing these; for patients on dual antiplatelet therapy for secondary prevention, we suggest temporary interruption of the P2Y12 receptor inhibitor while continuing ASA; and if on cardiac ASA monotherapy for secondary prevention, we suggest against its interruption. Evidence was insufficient in the following settings to permit recommendations. With acute GI bleeding in patients on warfarin, we could not recommend for or against PCC administration when compared with placebo. In the elective periprocedural endoscopy setting, we could not recommend for or against temporary interruption of the P2Y12 receptor inhibitor for patients on a single P2Y12 inhibiting agent. We were also unable to make a recommendation regarding same-day resumption of the drug vs 1–7 days after the procedure among patients prescribed anticoagulants (warfarin or DOACs) or P2Y12 receptor inhibitor drugs because of insufficient evidence.

Efficacy of prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) versus fresh frozen plasma (FFP) in reducing perioperative blood loss in cardiac surgery: study protocol for a non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) is not inferior to fresh frozen plasma (FFP) with regard to reducing perioperative blood loss in patients undergoing cardiac surgery under cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB).

SETTING

Fu Wai Hospital, and Peking Union Medical College Hospital in China.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients undergoing elective coronary artery bypass grafting, valve replacement or valvuloplasty under CPB, between 18 and 80 years old, will be included.

DESIGN

This study is a non-inferiority, randomised controlled clinical trial. A total of 594 subjects will be randomly assigned to two groups (group PCC and group FFP) and given corresponding interventions when at least one of the following criteria is met: (1) international normalised ratio >1.7 measured 20 min after CPB, (2) prolonged prothrombin time or activated partial thromboplastin time (>1.5 times baseline) measured 20 min after CPB and (3) excessive bleeding observed. 4-factor PCC (15 IU/kg) and FFP (10 mL/kg) will be given to group PCC and group FFP, respectively. Preoperative management, anaesthetic and surgical techniques will be standardised for both groups.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome is the volume of blood loss during and within 24 hours after surgery. The secondary outcomes include (1) the total units of allogeneic red blood cells transfused during and within 7 days after surgery, (2) re-exploration due to postoperative bleeding within 7 days after surgery, (3) adverse events and serious adverse events within 30 days after surgery and (4) length of intensive care unit stay and hospital stay.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

Registered under NCT04244981 at ClinicalTrials.gov on 28 January 2020, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04244981?cond=NCT04244981&draw=2&rank=1.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board of Peking Union Medical College Hospital (ZS-2242).

Safety and efficacy of prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) for anticoagulation reversal in patients undergoing urgent neurosurgical procedures: a systematic review and metaanalysis

Anticoagulant therapy poses a significant risk for patients undergoing emergency neurosurgery procedures, necessitating reversal with prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) or fresh frozen plasma (FFP). Data on PCC efficacy lack consistency in this setting. This systematic review and metaanalysis aimed to evaluate efficacy and safety of PCC for anticoagulation reversal in the context of urgent neurosurgery. Articles from PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases were screened according to the PRISMA checklist. Adult patients receiving anticoagulation reversal with PCC for emergency neurosurgical procedures were included. When available, patients who received FFP were included as a comparison group. Pooled estimates of observational studies were calculated for efficacy and safety outcomes via random-effects modeling. Initial search returned 4505 articles, of which 15 studies met the inclusion criteria. Anticoagulants used included warfarin (83%), rivaroxaban (6.8%), phenprocoumon (6.1%), apixaban (2.2%), and dabigatran (1.5%). The mean International Normalized Ratio (INR) prePCC administration ranged from 2.3 to 11.7, while postPCC administration from 1.1 to 1.4. All-cause mortality at 30 days was 27% (95%CI 21, 34%; I² = 44.6%; p-heterogeneity = 0.03) and incidence of thromboembolic events was 6.00% among patients treated with PCC (95%CI 4.00, 10.0%; I² = 0%; p-heterogeneity = 0.83). Results comparing PCC and FFP demonstrated no statistically significant differences in INR reversal, mortality, or incidence of thromboembolic events. This metaanalysis demonstrated adequate safety and efficacy for PCC in the reversal of anticoagulation for urgent neurosurgical procedures. There was no significant difference between PCC and FFP, though further trials would be useful in demonstrating the safety and efficacy of PCC in this setting.

A Retrospective Propensity Score-Matched Early Thromboembolic Event Analysis of Prothrombin Complex Concentrate vs Fresh Frozen Plasma for Warfarin Reversal Prior to Emergency Neurosurgical Procedures

BACKGROUND

Reversal of therapeutic anticoagulation prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures is required in the setting of intracranial hemorrhage. Multifactor prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) promises rapid efficacy but may increase the probability of thrombotic complications compared to fresh frozen plasma (FFP).

OBJECTIVE

To compare the rate of thrombotic complications in patients treated with PCC or FFP to reverse therapeutic anticoagulation prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures in the setting of intracranial hemorrhage at a level I trauma center.

METHODS

Sixty-three consecutive patients on warfarin therapy presenting with intracranial hemorrhage who received anticoagulation reversal prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures were retrospectively identified between 2007 and 2016. They were divided into 2 cohorts based on reversal agent, either PCC (n = 28) or FFP (n = 35). The thrombotic complications rates within 72 h of reversal were compared using the χ2 test. A multivariate propensity score matching analysis was used to limit the threat to interval validity from selection bias arising from differences in demographics, laboratory values, history, and clinical status.

RESULTS

Thrombotic complications were uncommon in this neurosurgical population, occurring in 1.59% (1/63) of treated patients. There was no significant difference in the thrombotic complication rate between groups, 3.57% (1/28; PCC group) vs 0% (0/35; FFP group). Propensity score matching analysis validated this finding after controlling for any selection bias.

CONCLUSION

In this limited sample, thrombotic complication rates were similar between use of PCC and FFP for anticoagulation reversal in the management of intracranial hemorrhage prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures.

Prise en charge hémostatique des hémorragies cérébrales sous anticoagulants oraux

L’hématome intracrânien spontané a un pronostic clinique sévère. Le devenir des patients dépend de l’efficacité de la prise en charge initiale. L’importance du saignement, le volume de l’hématome et son évolution sont les facteurs principaux qui contrôlent mortalité et morbidité. Les traitements anticoagulants oraux, antivitamines K (AVK) et anticoagulants oraux directs (AOD), favorisent l’expansion de l’hématome. La correction rapide de l’hémostase permet le contrôle partiel de l’hématome. Alors que la réversion des AVK par les concentrés de complexe prothrombinique (CCP) a fait l’objet de recommandations bien diffusées, l’attitude thérapeutique reste peu codifiée avec les AOD, alliant l’utilisation de l’idarucizumab pour le dabigatran et des CCP pour les anti-Xa qui n’ont, pour l’instant, pas d’antidote.

History of Hemostasis in Neurosurgery

Control of bleeding in the confined area of the skull is imperative for successful neurosurgery and the prevention of devastating complications such as postoperative hemorrhage. This paper reviews the historical evolution of methods to achieve successful hemostasis in neurosurgery from the early1800s to today. The major categories of hemostatic agents (mechanical, chemical and thermal) are delineated and discussed in chronological order. The significance of this article is in its detailed history of the kinds of hemostatic methods that have evolved with our accumulating medical and surgical knowledge, which may inform future innovations and improvements.

Utility of prothrombin complex concentrate as first-line treatment modality of coagulopathy in patients undergoing liver transplantation: A propensity score-matched study

BACKGROUND

Transfusion management during liver transplantation (LT) is aimed at reducing blood loss and allogeneic transfusion requirements. Although prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) has been used satisfactorily in various bleeding disorders, studies on its safety, and efficacy during LT are limited.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of adult patients who underwent living donor LT at a single institute between October 2016 and January 2018 was carried out. The safety and efficacy of PCC in reducing transfusion requirements intraoperatively in patients who received PCC were compared with patients who did not receive PCC. A propensity score-matching technique was used, at a 1:1 ratio, to remove selection bias.

RESULTS

After completing the 1:1 propensity score-matched analysis, 60 pairs of patients were identified. The use of PCC was associated with significantly decreased red blood cell transfusion requirements (6.2 ± 4.1 vs 8.23 ± 5.18, P < 0.001) and fresh frozen plasma transfusion requirements (2.6 ± 2 vs 6.18 ± 4.1, P < 0.001). The number of patients developing postoperative hemorrhagic complications was higher in the non-PCC group.

CONCLUSIONS

During LT, the use of PCC led to decreased transfusion requirements. No thromboembolic complications related to PCC were noted in this series.

Reversal of Vitamin K Antagonist Therapy Before Thrombolysis for Acute Ischemic Stroke

Background and Purpose—

Acute ischemic strokes under vitamin K antagonist (VKA) treatment are not uncommon, but intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) is not recommended for international normalized ratio (INR) >1.7 because of the excess bleeding risk. However, VKA-induced anticoagulation can be easily reversed by IV infusions of 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate bolus and vitamin K. Our pilot study aimed to determine whether IVT immediately after anticoagulation reversal could be feasible and safe in acute ischemic stroke patients under VKA with INR >1.7.

Methods—

Consecutive acute ischemic stroke patients, otherwise eligible for IVT except for VKA intake and INR >1.7, were given IVT after infusing 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate and vitamin K. Safety and efficacy were assessed clinically and by cerebral imaging at 24 hours.

Results—

Twenty-six patients (age, 77.8±12.8 years; atrial fibrillation, 84.6%; initial National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale, 11.6±5.6) were prospectively included. INR values were 2.3±0.6 initially and 1.3±0.2, 5 minutes postreversal. No symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage or thrombotic events occurred during the first 3 days. One patient developed major systemic hemorrhoidal bleeding that required blood transfusion; 61.5% of the patients were independent (modified Rankin Scale score of ≤2) at 3 months.

Conclusions—

A reversal strategy of 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate bolus and vitamin K before IVT could be feasible and safe in acute ischemic stroke patients under VKA with INR >1.7. Well-designed, randomized controlled trials are warranted to confirm these preliminary findings.

Vitamin K antagonists and emergencies

The recent emergence of 'non-VKA' oral anticoagulants may have led to some forgetting that vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are by far the most widely prescribed oral anticoagulants worldwide. Consequently, we decided to summarize the information available on them. This paper presents the problems facing emergency physicians confronted with patients on VKAs in 10 points, from pharmacological data to emergency management. Vitamin K antagonists remain preferable in many situations including in the elderly, in patients with extreme body weights, severe chronic kidney or liver disease or valvular heart disease, and in patients taking VKAs with well-controlled international normalized ratios (INRs). Given the way VKAs work, a stable anticoagulant state can only be achieved at the earliest 5 days after starting therapy. The induction phase of VKA treatment is associated with the highest risk of bleeding; validated algorithms based on INR values have to be followed. VKA asymptomatic overdoses and 'non-severe' hemorrhage are managed by omitting a dose or stopping treatment plus administering vitamin K depending on the INR. Major bleeding is managed using a VKA reversal strategy. A prothrombin complex concentrate infusion plus vitamin K is preferred to rapidly achieve an INR of up to 1.5 and maintain a normal coagulation profile. The INR must be measured 30 min after the infusion. Before an invasive procedure, if an INR of less than 1.5 (<1.3 in neurosurgery) is required, it can be achieved by combining prothrombin complex concentrate and vitamin K. A well-codified strategy is essential for managing patients requiring emergency invasive procedures or presenting bleeding complications.

Clinical outcome of patients with a vitamin K antagonist-associated bleeding treated with prothrombin complex concentrate

BACKGROUND

Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are used for the treatment of thromboembolism. Patients with severe VKA-associated bleeding require immediate restoration of haemostasis. Clinical studies on the effect of prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) are heterogeneous with respect to outcome of bleeding.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the clinical outcome of patients treated with PCC for VKA-associated bleeding.

METHODS

We performed a cohort study of consecutive patients who received PCC for VKA-related bleeding in five Dutch hospitals. Data were collected by chart review on the bleeding event, international normalized ratio (INR), haemostatic efficacy, thromboembolic (TE) complications, and mortality. The primary outcome was effective haemostasis, assessed by an adaptation of the Sarode criteria with a surrogate outcome for patients with ICH without repeat CT.

RESULTS

One hundred patients were included. Mean age was 74 years, 54% were male and 79% received VKA for atrial fibrillation. Most patients presented with ICH (41%) or GI bleeding (36%). Effective haemostasis was achieved in 67/98 (68%) patients using the adapted classification. Surrogate outcomes were applied for 32 patients and data for two patients was missing. Median pre-treatment INR was 3.9 (IQR 2.9-5.8). One hour after PCC infusion, the INR was available for 50 patients and of these, 35 (70%) had an INR ≤1.4. TE complications occurred in five patients and 22 died (60% bleeding-related) within 30 days.

CONCLUSION

PCC achieved effective haemostasis in 68% of evaluable patients with VKA-associated bleeding. TE complication rates were low, but mortality rates were high, due to the large number of patients with ICH.

A comparative study of prothrombin complex concentrates and freshfrozen plasma for warfarin reversal under static and flow conditions

Prothrombin complex concentrates (PCCs) and fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) have been clinically used for acute warfarin reversal. The recovery of prothrombin time (PT) or international normalised ratio (INR) is often reported as an endpoint, but haemostatic efficacies of PCCs and FFP may not be fully reflected in static clotting test in platelet-poor plasma. Using various in vitro assays, we compared the effects of two PCC preparations (3-factor PCC; Bebulin and 4-factor PCC; Beriplex) and FFP on warfarin reversal under static and flow conditions. First, we added an aliquot of either PCC (0.3 or 0.72 U/ml) or 20% FFP (v/v) to commercial warfarin plasma (INR 3.2, or 10.3), and then measured PT, factor II, factor VII, and thrombin generation. Subsequently, we collected whole blood samples from six consented warfarin-treated patients with mean INR 3.0 ± 0.5 (range 2.5–3.7), and compared clot formation under flow conditions at 280 s-1 before and after addition of either PCC preparation (0.3 and 0.6 U/ml) or 20% of FFP (v/v). PT/INR were restored by either PCC in plasma with INR 3.0, but they were more effectively corrected by 4-factor PCC than 3-factor PCC in plasma with INR 10.3. Effects of FFP were similar to 0.3U/ml of PCCs in terms of PT, but FFP was less efficacious than PCCs in recovering thrombin generation or factor II levels. In flow experiments, the onset of thrombus formation was shortened by either PCC, but not by FFP, contrary to shortened PT values. For warfarin reversal 20% volume replacement with FFP is inferior to PCCs.

[Antithrombotic treatment consensus protocol (anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapy) during the perioperative and periprocedural period in neurosurgery]

The use of antithrombotic medication (antiplatelet and/or anticoagulant therapy) is widespread. Currently, the management of neurosurgical patients receiving this type of therapy continues to be a problem of special importance. Patients receiving antithrombotic treatment may need neurosurgical care because of bleeding secondary to such treatment, non-haemorrhagic neurosurgical lesions requiring urgent attention, or simply elective neurosurgical procedures. In addition, the consequences of reintroducing early (bleeding or rebleeding) or late (thrombotic or thromboembolic) anticoagulation can be devastating. In this paper we present the antithrombotic treatment consensus protocol during the perioperative and periprocedural period, both in emergent surgery and in elective neurosurgical procedures.

Chronic Subdural Hematoma ICU Management

Patients with cSDH presenting with new or worsening neurological deficits, especially if they are debilitating and adversely affecting quality of life require urgent medical and surgical attention. Neurological and neurosurgical critical care team need to stabilize the patient by reversing any underlying coagulopathy states in order to prevent further hematoma expansion.In the event of brain herniation and presumed ICP elevation and CPP compromise, step-wise ICP management should be instituted promptly.Seizure prophylaxis treatment is reasonable. Timing of surgical evacuation is not always easy to determine but the presence of significant neurological deficits with impending herniation require immediate surgical Intervention. Consideration of the clot density along with patient's current neurological status would determine the timing and type of surgical interventions. Postoperative critical care management is not trivial. In addition to detecting any changes in neurological conditions, timely initiation (typically within the first 48 hours if clinical and radiographic conditions are stable with no co-existing coagulopathy) of venous thromboembolism prophylaxis is essential. Resuming antiplatelets and anticoagulants are warranted for those with clear indications including atrial fibrillation, atrial thrombus, known deep vein thrombosis, mechanical heart valves and other preexisting hypercoagulable conditions, but it is generally advised to hold antiplatelets and anticoagulants for about 10-14 post injury and/or surgical intervention.

The Effectiveness of Subdural Drains Using Urokinase after Burr Hole Evacuation of Subacute Subdural Hematoma in Elderly Patients: A Prelimilary Report

OBJECTIVE

A subdural drain using urokinase after a burr hole hematoma evacuation was performed for subacute subdural hematoma (SASDH), and its effectiveness and safety in elderly patients were evaluated.

METHODS

Between January 2013 and May 2015, subdural drains using urokinase after burr hole hematoma evacuation were performed in 19 elderly patients. The inclusion criteria were as follows: 1) a subdural hematoma occurring between 4 and 20 days after injury; 2) worsening neurological symptoms, from mild to moderate or severe, due to injury during the subacute stage; 3) a mix of solid clots (high-density lighter shadow) and fluid hematoma (low-density darker shadow) on the computed tomography (CT) scan; 4) a score of ≥9 on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) assessed immediately before surgery; and 5) an age of ≥65 years. When the majority of the hematoma was evacuated on the CT, we removed the catheter.

RESULTS

Under local anesthesia, a catheter was inserted into the hematoma through a burr hole. The mean age of the patients was 73.7 years (range, 65-87 years). The mean preoperative GCS score was 11.2 (range, 10-13), and the mean Glasgow Outcome Scale score for all patients was 5 at discharge. No recurrences of hematomas or surgical complications were observed.

CONCLUSION

A subdural drain using urokinase after burr hole hematoma evacuation under local anesthesia is thought to be an effective and safe method of blood clot removal with low morbidity. This surgical method is less invasive for treating elderly patients with SASDH.

The critical care management of spontaneous intracranial hemorrhage: a contemporary review

Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), defined as nontraumatic bleeding into the brain parenchyma, is the second most common subtype of stroke, with 5.3 million cases and over 3 million deaths reported worldwide in 2010. Case fatality is extremely high (reaching approximately 60 % at 1 year post event). Only 20 % of patients who survive are independent within 6 months. Factors such as chronic hypertension, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and anticoagulation are commonly associated with ICH. Chronic arterial hypertension represents the major risk factor for bleeding. The incidence of hypertension-related ICH is decreasing in some regions due to improvements in the treatment of chronic hypertension. Anticoagulant-related ICH (vitamin K antagonists and the newer oral anticoagulant drugs) represents an increasing cause of ICH, currently accounting for more than 15 % of all cases. Although questions regarding the optimal medical and surgical management of ICH still remain, recent clinical trials examining hemostatic therapy, blood pressure control, and hematoma evacuation have advanced our understanding of ICH management. Timely and aggressive management in the acute phase may mitigate secondary brain injury. The initial management should include: initial medical stabilization; rapid, accurate neuroimaging to establish the diagnosis and elucidate an etiology; standardized neurologic assessment to determine baseline severity; prevention of hematoma expansion (blood pressure management and reversal of coagulopathy); consideration of early surgical intervention; and prevention of secondary brain injury. This review aims to provide a clinical approach for the practicing clinician.

Safety and efficacy of prothrombin complex concentrate as first-line treatment in bleeding after cardiac surgery

BACKGROUND

Bleeding after cardiac surgery requiring surgical reexploration and blood component transfusion is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Although prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) has been used satisfactorily in bleeding disorders, studies on its efficacy and safety after cardiopulmonary bypass are limited.

METHODS

Between January 2005 and December 2013, 3454 consecutive cardiac surgery patients were included in an observational study aimed at investigating the efficacy and safety of PCC as first-line coagulopathy treatment as a replacement for fresh frozen plasma (FFP). Starting in January 2012, PCC was introduced as solely first-line treatment for bleeding following cardiac surgery.

RESULTS

After one-to-one propensity score-matched analysis, 225 pairs of patients receiving PCC (median dose 1500 IU) and FFP (median dose 2 U) were included. The use of PCC was associated with significantly decreased 24-h post-operative blood loss (836 ± 1226 vs. 935 ± 583 ml, p < 0.0001). Propensity score-adjusted multivariate analysis showed that PCC was associated with significantly lower risk of red blood cell (RBC) transfusions (odds ratio [OR] 0.50; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.31-0.80), decreased amount of RBC units (β unstandardised coefficient -1.42, 95% CI -2.06 to -0.77) and decreased risk of transfusion of more than 2 RBC units (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.38-0.73). Patients receiving PCC had an increased risk of post-operative acute kidney injury (AKI) (OR 1.44, 95% CI 1.02-2.05) and renal replacement therapy (OR 3.35, 95% CI 1.13-9.90). Hospital mortality was unaffected by PCC (OR 1.51, 95% CI 0.84-2.72).

CONCLUSIONS

In the cardiac surgery setting, the use of PCC compared with FFP was associated with decreased post-operative blood loss and RBC transfusion requirements. However, PCC administration may be associated with a higher risk of post-operative AKI.

Gastrointestinal bleeding in patients receiving oral anticoagulation: Current treatment and pharmacological perspectives

Gastrointestinal bleeding (GIB) is a potentially fatal and avoidable medical condition that poses a burden on global health care costs. The rate of major GIB related to the use of some direct acting oral anticoagulant drugs (DOACs), is higher than that detected in warfarin users. Current strategies in the treatment of GIBs in patients receiving warfarin or DOACs (vitamin K, activated charcoal; hemodialysis; recombinant factor VIIa; [activated] prothrombin complex concentrates) including indications for the treatment of bleeding based on different degrees of severity of the episodes, is reported in this article. Potential preventive strategies to mitigate the risk of GIBs (e.g. upper endoscopy/biopsy, colon cancer screening; eradication of Helicobacter pylori prior to starting anticoagulation; use of proton-pump inhibitors, identification of risk factors for bleeding) are also reported as well as the fact that some of them have not been tested so far in patients receiving DOACs. Antidotes that experimentally reverse the anti-coagulant effect of dabigatran (Idarucizumab; BI 655075; Boehringer Ingelheim); of rivaroxaban, apixaban, or edoxaban (Andexanet alfa, r-Antidote, PRT064445; Portola Pharmaceuticals) or of all DOACs (Aripazine, PER-977, ciraparantag; Perosphere Inc.) are discussed. Likewise, population pharmacokinetics modeling related to the rate of major DOACs-related GIBs is presented. It is also emphasized that the occurrence of GIB reflects the presence of patients at the highest risk for adverse outcomes. Finally, the implications of the concept that patient characteristics and the severity of illness (i.e. comorbidities) exert a greater impact on the risk of GIB than the type of antithrombotic agent employed, are analyzed.

Modelling of vitamin K half-life in patients treated with vitamin K antagonists before hip fracture surgery

BACKGROUND

Guidelines recommend treatment with vitamin K in patients requiring reversal of the effect of vitamin K antagonists (VKA) before semi-urgent surgery. In clinical practice, the time for reversal of the international normalized ratio (INR) to values adequate for surgery is often reported longer than the expected 12-24 hours, which may delay surgery and increase the risk of complications.

METHODS

In order to optimize the management of elderly patients treated with VKA and undergoing hip fracture surgery, we aimed to model the vitamin K half-life in this specific population. Files for patients admitted between 2006 and 2008 for hip fracture surgery and chronically treated with VKA were retrospectively studied. Only patients with an INR superior to 1.5 upon arrival were included in the study. The effect of vitamin K on the decrease in INR was modelled after a PK/PD analysis using NONMEM. Thirty-one patients' files were analysed.

RESULTS

Despite management in accordance with guidelines, 31% of the patients had a delayed return to INR values<1.5 resulting in delayed surgery. Time to INR<1.5 was longer than 24 hours in 50% of the patients. The calculated half-life of vitamin K was 24.7 hours in this population.

CONCLUSION

The vitamin K half-life in elderly patients treated with VKA and undergoing hip fracture surgery was prolonged. The use of vitamin K or of a more rapid acting alternative should be discussed, depending on the urgency of the surgery.

Less Is More: Low-dose Prothrombin Complex Concentrate Effective in Acute Care Surgery Patients

Optimal dosing of prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) has yet to be defined and varies widely due to concerns of efficacy and thrombosis. We hypothesized a dose of 15 IU/kg actual body weight of a three-factor PCC would effectively correct coagulopathy in acute care surgery patients. Retrospective review of 41 acute care surgery patients who received 15 IU/kg (± 10%) actual body weight PCC for correction of coagulopathy. Demographics, laboratory results, PCC dose, blood and plasma transfusions, and thrombotic complications were analyzed. We performed subset analyses of trauma patients and those taking warfarin. Mean age was 69 years (18-94 years). Thirty (73%) trauma patients, 8 (20%) emergency surgery patients, 2 (5%) burns, and 1 (2%) nontrauma neurosurgical patient were included. Mean PCC dose was 1305.4 IU (14.2 IU/kg actual body weight). Mean change in INR was 2.52 to 1.42 (p 0.00004). Successful correction (INR <1.5) was seen in 78 per cent. Treatment failures had a higher initial INR (4.3 vs 2.03, p 0.01). Mean plasma transfusion was 1.46 units. Mean blood transfusion was 1.61 units. Patients taking prehospital warfarin (n = 29, 71%) had higher initial INR (2.78 vs 1.92, p 0.05) and received more units of plasma (1.93 vs 0.33, p 0.01) than those not taking warfarin. No statistical differences were seen between trauma and nontrauma patients. One thrombotic event occurred. Administration of low-dose PCC, 15 IU/kg actual body weight, effectively corrects coagulopathy in acute care surgery patients regardless of warfarin use, diagnosis or plasma transfusion.

Use of prothrombin complex concentrate in warfarin anticoagulation reversal in the emergency department: a quality improvement study of administration delays

BACKGROUND

Quick reversal of warfarin anticoagulation is important in life threatening bleeding. The aim of this study is to improve the administration delay when using Prothrombin Complex Concentrate (PCC) for the emergent reversal of warfarin anticoagulation in the emergency department.

METHODS

An audit and feedback quality improvement project was conducted in three phases: a retrospective audit phase, an analysis and feedback phase and prospective evaluation phase. The charts of all eligible patients in a single Emergency Department (ED) in Québec, Canada, who received PCC since the introduction of this product in 2009 until October 31, 2011, were retrospectively audited. The administration delay of PCC was calculated from the time of prescription to the time of administration. With the data, we determined where improvements could be attained, and jointly with all stakeholders in the ED and the blood bank, we created an action plan to ensure the timely administration of PCC. The action plan was then implemented and a six-month prospective evaluation study was conducted to determine any improvement.

RESULTS

Seventy-seven charts were reviewed in the retrospective chart audit. The mean administration delay was 73.6 minutes (STD [34.1]) with a median of 70.0 minutes (25-75% IQR [45.0-95.0]). We found that this delay was principally due to the following barriers: communication problems between the ED and the blood bank as well as delivery inefficiencies. An action plan that involved a flowchart to remind all clinicians how to order PCC and a new delivery method from the blood bank to the ED were developed. During the 6 months following the implementation of our action plan, 39 patients received PCC and the mean administration time decreased to 33.2 minutes (STD [14.2])(p < .0001) with a median of 30.0 minutes (25-75% IQR [24.3-38.8]).

CONCLUSION

By implementing an action plan comprising of a flowchart and a new delivery process, this audit and feedback quality improvement project reduced the administration time of PCC by more than half. Future studies to measure the impact of a similar audit and feedback process involving an action plan in other centers should be conducted before this type of quality improvement process is implemented on wider scale.

Four factor prothrombin complex concentrate (human): review of the pharmacology and clinical application for vitamin K antagonist reversal

Vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) have been used for decades for the treatment and prophylaxis of thromboembolic events. Due to their wide range of therapeutic indications, they are the most prescribed oral anticoagulant worldwide. However, they are associated with bleeding complications due to their narrow therapeutic range, variability in individual dose responses and laboratory monitoring, and overdoses. Despite off-label use of 3-factor prothrombin complex concentrates and recombinant activated factor VII, until recently, vitamin K and plasma were the only recommended therapeutic options for reversing VKAs in the USA. In 2013, a 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate (4F-PCC) was approved in the USA for VKA reversal in patients with bleeding or requiring emergency surgery and invasive procedure. Recent randomized controlled clinical trials have shown that 4F-PCC (Kcentra™) is non-inferior for hemostatic efficacy and superior for international normalized ratio correction as compared to plasma and has a similar safety profile.

Prothrombin complex concentrate in trauma patients

BACKGROUND

Despite recent advances, trauma care providers nowadays face a number of coagulopathic patients. Coagulopathy in trauma patients can be secondary to the traumatic insult or therapeutic effect of the anticoagulants including the Vitamin K antagonist. The efficacy of a concentrated product of Vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors, prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC), to reverse coagulopathy has been tested mainly in nontrauma setting.

DATA SOURCES

Currently available literature on the use of PCC was identified by searches of electronic database. The indications (trauma vs nontrauma) and types of the PCC products (3 vs 4 factors) were also reviewed in each article.

CONCLUSIONS

There are small studies that show promising results regarding PCC use to reverse the Vitamin K antagonist-related coagulopathy in trauma patients. It remains unanswered whether PCC can be effective as an adjunct in patients who require massive transfusion.

The epidemic of pre-injury oral antiplatelet and anticoagulant use

BACKGROUND

As the population ages, an increasing number of trauma patients are taking antiplatelet and anticoagulant medications (ACAP) prior to their injuries. These medications increase their risk of hemorrhagic complications, particularly intracerebral hemorrhage. Clopidogrel and warfarin are common and their mechanisms well understood, but optimal reversal methods continue to evolve. The novel direct thrombin and factor Xa inhibitors are less well described and do not have existing antidotes.

METHODS

This article reviews the relevant literature on traumatic outcomes with use of ACAP medications, as well as data on ideal reversal strategies. Suggested algorithms are introduced, and future research directions discussed.

RESULTS

Although they are beneficial in preventing clot formation, once bleeding occurs ACAP medications contribute to increased morbidity and mortality, particularly in geriatric patient populations. The efficacy of clopidogrel reversal with platelet transfusions and DDAVP remains unclear. Warfarin use is best treated with the algorithm-driven use of plasma, vitamin K, prothrombin complex concentrates (PCCs) and possibly recombinant factor VIIa depending upon specific patient and injury factors. Optimal treatment for direct thrombin and factor Xa inhibitors has yet to be developed, but PCCs are promising for rivaroxaban and apixaban while dabigatran is best treated with medication cessation and the possible addition of activated PCCs or hemodialysis.

CONCLUSION

New developments in reversal of the ACAP medications are promising, particularly PCCs for warfarin and the factor Xa inhibitors. Function assays and clear antidotes are needed for the thrombin and Xa inhibitors. Research on outcomes and appropriate treatments is actively ongoing.

Guideline-concordant administration of prothrombin complex concentrate and vitamin K is associated with decreased mortality in patients with severe bleeding under vitamin K antagonist treatment (EPAHK study)

Introduction

In vitamin K antagonist (VKA)-treated patients with severe hemorrhage, guidelines recommend prompt VKA reversal with prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) and vitamin K. The aim of this observational cohort study was to evaluate the impact of guideline concordant administration of PCC and vitamin K on seven-day mortality.

Methods

Data from consecutive patients treated with PCC were prospectively collected in 44 emergency departments. Type of hemorrhage, coagulation parameters, type of treatment and seven-day mortality mortality were recorded. Guideline-concordant administration of PCC and vitamin K (GC-PCC-K) were defined by at least 20 IU/kg factor IX equivalent PCC and at least 5 mg of vitamin K performed within a predefined time frame of eight hours after admission. Multivariate analysis was used to assess the effect of appropriate reversal on seven-day mortality in all patients and in those with intracranial hemorrhage (ICH).

Results

Data from 822 VKA-treated patients with severe hemorrhage were collected over 14 months. Bleeding was gastrointestinal (32%), intracranial (32%), muscular (13%), and “other” (23%). In the whole cohort, seven-day mortality was 13% and 33% in patients with ICH. GC-PCC-K was performed in 38% of all patients and 44% of ICH patients. Multivariate analysis showed a two-fold decrease in seven-day mortality in patients with GC-PCC-K (odds ratio (OR) = 2.15 (1.20 to 3.88); P = 0.011); this mortality reduction was also observed when only ICH was considered (OR = 3.23 (1.53 to 6.79); P = 0.002).

Conclusions

Guideline-concordant VKA reversal with PCC and vitamin K within eight hours after admission was associated with a significant decrease in seven-day mortality.

Rapid reversal of warfarin-associated hemorrhage in the emergency department by prothrombin complex concentrates

Life-threatening warfarin-associated hemorrhage is common, with a high mortality. In the United States, the most commonly used therapies--fresh frozen plasma and vitamin K--are slow and unpredictable and can result in volume overload. Outside of the United States, prothrombin complex concentrates are often used instead; these pooled plasma products reverse warfarin anticoagulation in minutes rather than hours. This article reviews the literature relating to warfarin reversal with fresh frozen plasma, prothrombin complex concentrates, and recombinant factor VIIa and provides elements for a management protocol based on this literature.

Intracerebral hemorrhage in patients receiving oral anticoagulation therapy

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) in patients with oral anticoagulation therapy is an increasingly prevalent problem in large part due to the aging population and the increased use of anticoagulants for patients at high risk of thrombosis. Warfarin has been virtually the only outpatient anticoagulant choice until fairly recently. The development of subcutaneously injected heparinoids, and more recently, of direct thrombin inhibitors, has made the treatment and prognostication of ICH in anticoagulated patients more difficult. In this review, we will review the current state of diagnosis, prognostication, and treatment for patients with this often-devastating type of bleeding. We will focus on warfarin therapy, because the preponderance of evidence comes from studies of warfarin treatment. Where there is evidence, we will contrast warfarin with some of the newer treatment modalities. We review the evidence of the 4 major reversal agents for warfarin, vitamin K, prothrombin complex concentrates, activated factor VII, and fresh frozen plasma as well as rational treatment choices. We offer possible treatments for the newer anticoagulants based on the limited evidence available. Finally, we review recommendations from the major societies and studies that support early and aggressive therapies in intensive care units with dedicated neurological specialists.

Recommendations for the emergency management of complications associated with the new direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), apixaban, dabigatran and rivaroxaban

Dabigatran, apixaban, and rivaroxaban have been approved for primary and secondary stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation. However, questions have arisen about how to manage emergency situations, such as when thrombolysis would be required for acute ischemic stroke or for the managing intracranial or gastrointestinal bleedings. We summarize the current literature and provide recommendations for the management of these situations. Peak plasma levels of the direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) apixaban, dabigatran, or rivaroxaban are observed about 2-4 h after intake. Elimination of dabigatran is mainly dependent on renal function. Consequently, if renal function is impaired, there is a risk of drug accumulation that is highest for dabigatran followed by rivaroxaban and then apixaban and thus dosing recommendations are different. To date, no bedside tests are available that reliably assess the anticoagulatory effect of DOACs, nor are specific antidotes available. We recommend performing the following tests if DOAC intake is unknown: dabigatran-associated bleeding risk is minimized or can be neglected if thrombin time, Hemoclot test, or Ecarin clotting time is normal. Apixaban and rivaroxaban effects can be ruled out if findings from the anti-factor Xa activity test are normal. High plasma levels of DOAC are also mostly excluded if PTT and PTZ are normal four or more hours after DOAC intake. However, normal values of global coagulation tests are not sufficient if thrombolysis is indicated for treating acute stroke. The decision for or against thrombolysis is an individual decision; in these cases, thrombolysis use is off-label. In case of bleeding, prothrombin complex concentrates seems to be the most plausible treatment. For severe gastrointestinal bleeding with life-threatening blood loss, the bleeding source needs to be identified and treated by invasive measures. Use of procoagulant drugs (antifibrinolytics) might also be considered. However, there is very limited clinical experience with these products in conjunction with DOAC.

Long-term safety and efficacy of a pasteurized nanofiltrated prothrombin complex concentrate (Beriplex P/N): a pharmacovigilance study

Background

The rapid reversal of the effects of vitamin K antagonists is often required in cases of emergency surgery and life-threatening bleeding, or during bleeding associated with high morbidity and mortality such as intracranial haemorrhage. Increasingly, four-factor prothrombin complex concentrates (PCCs) containing high and well-balanced concentrations of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors are recommended for emergency oral anticoagulation reversal. Both the safety and efficacy of such products are currently in focus, and their administration is now expanding into the critical care setting for the treatment of life-threatening bleeding and coagulopathy resulting either perioperatively or in cases of acute trauma.

Methods

After 15 yr of clinical use, findings of a pharmacovigilance report (February 1996–March 2012) relating to the four-factor PCC Beriplex P/N (CSL Behring, Marburg, Germany) were analysed and are presented here. Furthermore, a review of the literature with regard to the efficacy and safety of four-factor PCCs was performed.

Results

Since receiving marketing authorization (February 21, 1996), ∼647 250 standard applications of Beriplex P/N have taken place. During this time, 21 thromboembolic events judged to be possibly related to Beriplex P/N administration have been reported, while no incidences of viral transmission or heparin-induced thrombocytopenia were documented. The low risk of thromboembolic events reported during the observation period (one in ∼31 000) is in line with the incidence observed with other four-factor PCCs.

Conclusions

In general, four-factor PCCs have proven to be well tolerated and highly effective in the rapid reversal of vitamin K antagonists.

A French multicenter randomised trial comparing two dose-regimens of prothrombin complex concentrates in urgent anticoagulation reversal

INTRODUCTION

Prothrombin complex concentrates (PCC) are haemostatic blood preparations indicated for urgent anticoagulation reversal, though the optimal dose for effective reversal is still under debate. The latest generation of PCCs include four coagulation factors, the so-called 4-factor PCC. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy and safety of two doses, 25 and 40 IU/kg, of 4-factor PCC in vitamin K antagonist (VKA) associated intracranial haemorrhage.

METHODS

We performed a phase III, prospective, randomised, open-label study including patients with objectively diagnosed VKA-associated intracranial haemorrhage between November 2008 and April 2011 in 22 centres in France. Patients were randomised to receive 25 or 40 IU/kg of 4-factor PCC. The primary endpoint was the international normalised ratio (INR) 10 minutes after the end of 4-factor PCC infusion. Secondary endpoints were changes in coagulation factors, global clinical outcomes and incidence of adverse events (AEs).

RESULTS

A total of 59 patients were randomised: 29 in the 25 IU/kg and 30 in the 40 IU/kg group. Baseline demographics and clinical characteristics were comparable between the groups. The mean INR was significantly reduced to 1.2 - and ≤1.5 in all patients of both groups - 10 minutes after 4-factor PCC infusion. The INR in the 40 IU/kg group was significantly lower than in the 25 IU/kg group 10 minutes (P = 0.001), 1 hour (P = 0.001) and 3 hours (P = 0.02) after infusion. The 40 IU/kg dose was also effective in replacing coagulation factors such as PT (P = 0.038), FII (P = 0.001), FX (P <0.001), protein C (P = 0.002) and protein S (0.043), 10 minutes after infusion. However, no differences were found in haematoma volume or global clinical outcomes between the groups. Incidence of death and thrombotic events was similar between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Rapid infusion of both doses of 4-factor PCC achieved an INR of 1.5 or less in all patients with a lower INR observed in the 40 IU/kg group. No safety concerns were raised by the 40 IU/kg dose. Further trials are needed to evaluate the impact of the high dose of 4-factor PCC on functional outcomes and mortality.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Eudra CT number 2007-000602-73.

Real world usage of PCC to "rapidly" correct warfarin induced coagulopathy

BACKGROUND

Life threatening bleeding and emergency procedures in patients on vitamin K antagonists are indications for urgent reversal with prothrombin complex concentrate and vitamin K. Rapid reversal in these situations is emphasized in the literature and guidelines, but only very limited information is available on its real life use, especially on the timing of treatment in relation to presentation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively audited emergency warfarin reversal in 131 consecutive patients. We studied the indication, use of vitamin K, time between presentation and administration of vitamin K and PCC, effectiveness in INR reduction and clinical outcome.

RESULTS

The median PCC dose was 26.8 IU/kg. The median INR was reduced from 3.1 to 1.2. Vitamin K (5 mg) was given in 91.6% of evaluable patients. We found significant delays in administration of PCC and vitamin K. The median time between presentation and administration of vitamin K/PCC was 3.6 and 5.2 hours respectively. The times in intracranial haemorrhage were 2.7 and 3.0 hours and in emergency procedures 17.4 and 15.9 hours respectively. Mortality related to bleeding was 7.6% overall but in patients with intracranial haemorrhage 22.8%. The thrombotic rate within 7 days of reversal was 1.5%.

DISCUSSION

The local protocol for reversal with PCC and vitamin K was adhered to well but the delay in pre-procedural patients, suggests that intravenous vitamin K alone may be sufficient in many cases and PCC administration can be avoided by better planning. Intracranial haemorrhage in warfarinised patients carries a high mortality. Treatment delays should be avoided by making PCC stocks available within emergency departments, simple dosing structures independent of INR and administering PCC without waiting for INR and CT scan results in those with strong suspicion of intracranial haemorrhage and clear trauma. Future reports and studies should always include the time from presentation to PCC treatment.

Reversal of Vitamin K Antagonist (VKA) effect in patients with severe bleeding: a French multicenter observational study (Optiplex) assessing the use of Prothrombin Complex Concentrate (PCC) in current clinical practice

Introduction

Prothrombin Complex Concentrate (PCC) is a key treatment in the management of bleeding related to Vitamin K antagonists (VKA). This study aimed to evaluate prospectively PCC use in patients with VKA-related bleeding in view of the French guidelines published in 2008.

Methods

All consecutive patients with VKA-related bleeding treated with a 4-factor PCC (Octaplex^®) were selected in 33 French hospitals. Collected data included demographics, site and severity of bleeding, modalities of PCC administration, International Normalized Ratio (INR) values before and after PCC administration, outcomes and survival rate 15 days after infusion.

Results

Of 825 patients who received PCC between August 2008 and December 2010, 646 had severe bleeding. The main haemorrhage sites were intracranial (43.7%) and abdominal (24.3%). Mean INR before PCC was 4.4 ± 1.9; INR was unavailable in 12.5% of patients. The proportions of patients who received a PCC dose according to guidelines were 15.8% in patients with initial INR 2-2.5, 41.5% in patients with INR 2.5-3, 40.8% in patients with INR 3-3.5, 26.9% in patients with INR > 3.5, and 63.5% of patients with unknown INR. Vitamin K was administered in 84.7% of patients. The infused dose of PCC did not vary with initial INR; the mean dose was 25.3 ± 9.8 IU/Kg. Rates of controlled bleeding and target INR achievement were similar, regardless of whether or not patients were receiving PCC doses as per the guidelines. No differences in INR after PCC treatment were observed, regardless of whether or not vitamin K was administered. INR was first monitored after a mean time frame of 4.5 ± 5.6 hours post PCC. The overall survival rate at 15 days after PCC infusion was 75.4% (65.1% in patients with intracranial haemorrhage). A better prognosis was observed in patients reaching the target INR.

Conclusions

Severe bleeding related to VKA needs to be better managed, particularly regarding the PCC infused dose, INR monitoring and administration of vitamin K. A dose of 25 IU/kg PCC appears to be efficacious in achieving a target INR of 1.5. Further studies are required to assess whether adjusting PCC dose and/or better management of INR would improve outcomes.