Begleitstoffgehalte alkoholischer Getr�nke

Heavy metals in unrecorded Albanian rakia: A pilot study on a potential public health risk

Unrecorded alcohol has been linked to illness above and beyond that caused by ethanol alone because of the presence of toxic contaminants. While it can be found in all countries, consumption is high in Albania, where it is frequently consumed as a fruit brandy known as rakia. Among the contaminants identified previously in such products, metals including lead have been detected at levels posing a risk to health but there is little information on their presence in rakia. To fill this gap, we measured the level of ethanol and 24 elements among them toxic metals in 30 Albanian rakia samples. We found that 63.3% of rakia samples had ethanol concentration above 40% v/v. We also showed that there was a significant difference between the measured [mean: 46.7% v/v, interquartile range (IQR): 43.4-52.1% v/v] and reported (mean: 18.9% v/v, IQR: 17.0-20.0% v/v) concentrations of ethanol in rakia. Among the metals detected, aluminium, copper, iron, manganese, lead, and zinc were present in rakia samples at concentrations ranging between 0.013 and 0.866 mg/l of pure alcohol (pa), 0.025-31.629 mg/l of pa, 0.004-1.173 mg/l of pa, 0.185-45.244 mg/l of pa, 0.044-1.337 mg/l of pa, and 0.004-10.156 mg/l of pa, respectively. Copper and lead were found to be the greatest concern posing a potential public health risk. Although the estimated daily intake of these heavy metals from unrecorded rakia was below their toxicological threshold, the concentrations of lead and copper exceeded their limit value of 0.2 and 2.0 mg/l of pa specified for spirits in 33% and 90% of samples, respectively. Therefore, the possibility of adverse health effects cannot be excluded completely. Our findings highlight the need for action by policymakers against the risks posed by these products in Albania.

Methanol in unrecorded fruit spirits. Does it pose a health risk to consumers in the European Union? A probabilistic toxicological approach

Methanol is present at high concentrations in unrecorded fruit spirits, placing consumers of these beverages at risk of exposure at high levels. When assessing any health risk it is necessary to consider blood methanol levels (BMLs), reference dose (RfD), and maximum tolerable blood methanol level (MTBML). The aim of our study was to estimate daily methanol intake and related BMLs attributable to drinking unrecorded fruit spirits in the European population using a probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation. Data on the concentration of methanol in unrecorded fruit spirits in European Union member states were collected and the health risk posed by consumption of unrecorded fruit spirits was estimated. We found that drinking unrecorded fruit spirits containing methanol at a concentration higher than 8598.1 mg/litre of pure alcohol (p.a.) or 6382.1 mg/litre of p.a. and also at least 10 g ethanol can result in a methanol intake above the RfD by men and women, respectively. We confirmed that consumption of unrecorded fruit spirits containing methanol does not result in BMLs higher than the MTBML. Further studies are required to assess whether there is any health risk from chronic exposure to methanol above the RfD from unrecorded fruit spirits.

Methanol Mitigation during Manufacturing of Fruit Spirits with Special Consideration of Novel Coffee Cherry Spirits

Methanol is a natural ingredient with major occurrence in fruit spirits, such as apple, pear, plum or cherry spirits, but also in spirits made from coffee pulp. The compound is formed during fermentation and the following mash storage by enzymatic hydrolysis of naturally present pectins. Methanol is toxic above certain threshold levels and legal limits have been set in most jurisdictions. Therefore, the methanol content needs to be mitigated and its level must be controlled. This article will review the several factors that influence the methanol content including the pH value of the mash, the addition of various yeast and enzyme preparations, fermentation temperature, mash storage, and most importantly the raw material quality and hygiene. From all these mitigation possibilities, lowering the pH value and the use of cultured yeasts when mashing fruit substances is already common as best practice today. Also a controlled yeast fermentation at acidic pH facilitates not only reduced methanol formation, but ultimately also leads to quality benefits of the distillate. Special care has to be observed in the case of spirits made from coffee by-products which are prone to spoilage with very high methanol contents reported in past studies.

Metabolites of Aliphatic Alcohols Detected in Alcoholic Beverages Inhibit Phagocytosis

AIMS

The aim of our study was to measure granulocyte and monocyte phagocytosis following treatment of cells with some metabolites of aliphatic alcohols alone and in combination with acetaldehyde.

METHODS

The cells were separated from human peripheral blood prior to determination of phagocytosis of opsonized zymosan particles by granulocytes and monocytes treated individually with metabolites of aliphatic alcohols including formaldehyde, 1-propanal, acetone, 1-butanal, and 2-butanone and in combination with acetaldehyde.

RESULTS

The findings revealed that metabolites of aliphatic alcohols inhibited phagocytosis by granulocytes and monocytes in a concentration-dependent manner and when combined with acetaldehyde, they caused a further decrease in phagocytic activity.

CONCLUSION

Due to their additive effects, it is possible that, in combination with acetaldehyde, metabolites of aliphatic alcohols may inhibit phagocytosis at physiologically realistic concentrations in episodic heavy drinkers, thereby contributing to their increased susceptibility to infectious diseases.

Aliphatic alcohols in spirits inhibit phagocytosis by human monocytes

A large volume of alcoholic beverages containing aliphatic alcohols is consumed worldwide. Previous studies have confirmed the presence of ethanol-induced immunosuppression in heavy drinkers, thereby increasing susceptibility to infectious diseases. However, the aliphatic alcohols contained in alcoholic beverages might also impair immune cell function, thereby contributing to a further decrease in microbicidal activity. Previous research has shown that aliphatic alcohols inhibit phagocytosis by granulocytes but their effect on human monocytes has not been studied. This is important as they play a crucial role in engulfment and killing of pathogenic microorganisms and a decrease in their phagocytic activity could lead to impaired antimicrobial defence in heavy drinkers. The aim of this study was to measure monocyte phagocytosis following their treatment with those aliphatic alcohols detected in alcoholic beverages. Monocytes were separated from human peripheral blood and phagocytosis of opsonized zymosan particles by monocytes treated with ethanol and aliphatic alcohols individually and in combination was determined. It was shown that these alcohols could suppress the phagocytic activity of monocytes in a concentration-dependent manner and when combined with ethanol, they caused a further decrease in phagocytosis. Due to their additive effects, it is possible that they may inhibit phagocytosis in a clinically meaningful way in alcoholics and episodic heavy drinkers thereby contribute to their increased susceptibility to infectious diseases. However, further research is needed to address this question.

Koenigs-Knorr reaction of fusel alcohols with methyl (1-bromo-2,3,4-tri-O-acetyl-α-D-glucopyranosid)uronate leading to the protected alkyl glucuronides-crystal structures and high resolution 1H and 13C NMR data

Crystal structures and high resolution (1)H and (13)C NMR spectral data for methyl (alkyl 2,3,4-tri-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranosid)uronates (alkyl=methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, sec-butyl, i-butyl, n-pentyl, 2-methyl-1-butyl and 3-methyl-1-butyl) are presented.

Artisanal alcohol production in Mayan Guatemala: chemical safety evaluation with special regard to acetaldehyde contamination

There is a lack of knowledge regarding the composition, production, distribution, and consumption of artisanal alcohol, particularly in the developing world. In Nahualá, an indigenous Mayan municipality located in highland Guatemala, heavy alcohol consumption appears to have had a significant negative impact on health, a major role in cases of violence and domestic abuse, and a link to street habitation. Cuxa, an artisanally, as well as commercially produced sugarcane alcohol, is widely consumed by heavy drinkers in this community. Cuxa samples from all distribution points in the community were obtained and chemically analyzed for health-relevant constituents and contaminants including methanol, acetaldehyde, higher alcohols, and metals. From those, only acetaldehyde was confirmed to be present in unusually high levels (up to 126 g/hl of pure alcohol), particularly in samples that were produced clandestinely. Acetaldehyde has been evaluated as "possibly carcinogenic" and has also been identified as having significant human exposure in a recent risk assessment. This study explores the reasons for the elevated levels of acetaldehyde, through both sampling and analyses of raw and intermediary products of cuxa production, as well as interviews from producers of the clandestine alcohol. For further insight, we experimentally produced this alcohol in our laboratory, based on the directions provided by the producers, as well as materials from the town itself. Based on these data, the origin of the acetaldehyde contamination appears to be due to chemical changes induced during processing, with the major causative factors consisting of poor hygiene, aerobic working conditions, and inadequate yeast strains, compounded by flawed distillation methodology that neglects separation of the first fractions of the distillate. These results indicate a preventable public health concern for consumers, which can be overcome through education about good manufacturing practices, as well as financial incentives to separate the acetaldehyde-rich fractions during distillation.

Alcohol in Mayan Guatemala: consumption, distribution, production and composition of cuxa

AIMS

To describe the consumption, distribution, production and chemical composition of alcohol, including cuxa (pronounced 'coo sha'), in Nahualá, a highland Mayan municipality in Guatemala. Cuxa is a sugarcane-derived spirit, in part produced clandestinely, that has been distributed in the community for several decades.

METHODS

Key informant interviews with alcohol distributors and consumers, cuxa producers and health professionals, as well as analyses of questionnaires from a sample of 47 spouses who came to the local health centre for problems related to their husband's drinking. Sampling and chemical analysis of cuxa from 12 of 13 identified sales points in the head-town of Nahualá and its nearby settlements (10 km radius). Fieldwork was conducted between November 2007 and March 2008.

RESULTS

Alcohol consumption was found to be integrated culturally in this community. The overall drinking culture was marked by irregular heavy drinking occasions, especially around market days, with substantial inebriation and health problems, especially among street inhabiting drinkers. Cuxa contributed to these problems, and cuxa drinking was socially stigmatized. Cuxa was produced both clandestinely and industrially, and sold legally by taverns and illegally by clandestine distributors. The alcoholic strength of the samples was typically between 17 and 19% vol.; clandestinely produced cuxa samples showed acetaldehyde contamination.

CONCLUSIONS

Measures should be taken to reduce the harm associated with alcohol in this community, including efforts to reduce acetaldehyde levels in cuxa.

The composition of alcohol products from markets in Lithuania and Hungary, and potential health consequences: a pilot study

AIMS

The rates of alcohol-attributable mortality in Lithuania and Hungary have been shown to be higher than those in most other European countries. Quality of alcohol products is investigated as a possible explanation.

METHODS

In a descriptive pilot study, a convenience sample of alcohol products was collected from local city markets in both countries (Lithuania n = 10, Hungary n = 15) and chemical analyses, including some that have not been done in prior studies, were conducted. The parameters studied were alcoholic strength, volatiles (methanol, acetaldehyde, higher alcohols), ethyl carbamate, anions (including nitrate) and inorganic elements (including lead). Additionally, a multi-target screening analysis for toxicologically relevant substances was conducted.

RESULTS

The majority of samples (64%) had an alcohol content between 35% vol. and 40% vol., being in accordance with the typical strength of legal spirits in Europe. Three samples containing significantly higher concentrations of alcohol above 60% vol. were found to be unrecorded alcohol products, defined as any alcohol that is outside of legal and taxed production. Screening analysis showed that those samples contained various flavourings, including the hepatotoxic substance coumarin, at concentrations above the legal limit for foods. All other substance classes under study were found to be at levels of no toxicological concern.

CONCLUSIONS

Although some problems with the quality of the alcohol samples were found, there is insufficient evidence from this pilot study to conclude that alcohol quality has an influence on health as reflected in alcohol-attributable mortality rates. Given the extent of alcohol-attributable disease burden in central and eastern European countries, future research should focus on collection of large, representative samples, particularly of unrecorded sources, which was the most problematic product group in our study.

Surrogate alcohol: what do we know and where do we go?

BACKGROUND

Consumption of surrogate alcohols (i.e., nonbeverage alcohols and illegally produced alcohols) was shown to impact on different causes of death, not only poisoning or liver disease, and appears to be a major public health problem in Russia and elsewhere.

METHODS

A computer-assisted literature review on chemical composition and health consequences of "surrogate alcohol" was conducted and more than 70 references were identified. A wider definition of the term "surrogate alcohol" was derived, including both nonbeverage alcohols and illegally produced alcohols that contain nonbeverage alcohols.

RESULTS

Surrogate alcohol may contain substances that cause severe health consequences including death. Known toxic constituents include lead, which may lead to chronic toxicity, and methanol, which leads to acute poisoning. On the other hand, the role of higher alcohols (e.g., propanol, isobutanol, and isoamyl alcohol) in the etiology of surrogate-associated diseases is currently unclear. Whether other constituents of surrogates have contributed to the high all-cause mortality over and above the effect of ethanol in recent studies also remains unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the high public health importance associated with the consumption of surrogate alcohols, further knowledge on its chemical composition is required as well as research on its links to various disease endpoints should be undertaken with priority. Some interventions to reduce the harm resulting from surrogate alcohol could be undertaken already at this point. For example, the use of methanol or methanol-containing wood alcohol should be abolished in denatured alcohol. Other possible surrogates (e.g., automobile products) should be treated with bittering agents to avoid consumption.