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Perry WB, Ahmadian R, Munday M, Jones O, Ormerod SJ, Durance I. Addressing the challenges of combined sewer overflows. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 343:123225. [PMID: 38151091 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Europe's ageing wastewater system often combines domestic sewage with surface runoff and industrial wastewaters. To reduce the associated risk of overloading wastewater treatment works during storms, and to prevent wastewater backing-up into properties, Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs) are designed into wastewater networks to release excess discharge into rivers or coastal waters without treatment. In view of growing regulatory scrutiny and increasing public concern about their excessive discharge frequencies and potential impacts on environments and people, there is a need to better understand these impacts to allow prioritisation of cost-effective solutions.We review: i) the chemical, physical and biological composition of CSOs discharges; ii) spatio-temporal variations in the quantity, quality and load of overflows spilling into receiving waters; iii) the potential impacts on people, ecosystems and economies. Despite investigations illustrating the discharge frequency of CSOs, data on spill composition and loading of pollutants are too few to reach representative conclusions, particularly for emerging contaminants. Studies appraising impacts are also scarce, especially in contexts where there are multiple stressors affecting receiving waters. Given the costs of addressing CSOs problems, but also the likely long-term gains (e.g. economic stimulation as well as improvements to biodiversity, ecosystem services, public health and wellbeing), we highlight here the need to bolster these evidence gaps. We also advocate no-regrets options to alleviate CSO problems taking into consideration economic costs, carbon neutrality, ecosystem benefit and community well-being. Besides pragmatic, risk-based investment by utilities and local authorities to modernise wastewater systems, these include i) more systemic thinking, linking policy makers, consumers, utilities and regulators, to shift from local CSO issues to integrated catchment solutions with the aim of reducing contributions to wastewater from surface drainage and water consumption; ii) broader societal responsibilities for CSOs, for example through improved regulation, behavioural changes in water consumption and disposal of waste into wastewater networks, and iii) greater cost-sharing of wastewater use.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Bernard Perry
- Water Research Institute, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Reza Ahmadian
- School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Max Munday
- Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Owen Jones
- School of Mathematics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Steve J Ormerod
- Water Research Institute, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Isabelle Durance
- Water Research Institute, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK.
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Landrigan PJ, Stegeman JJ, Fleming LE, Allemand D, Anderson DM, Backer LC, Brucker-Davis F, Chevalier N, Corra L, Czerucka D, Bottein MYD, Demeneix B, Depledge M, Deheyn DD, Dorman CJ, Fénichel P, Fisher S, Gaill F, Galgani F, Gaze WH, Giuliano L, Grandjean P, Hahn ME, Hamdoun A, Hess P, Judson B, Laborde A, McGlade J, Mu J, Mustapha A, Neira M, Noble RT, Pedrotti ML, Reddy C, Rocklöv J, Scharler UM, Shanmugam H, Taghian G, van de Water JA, Vezzulli L, Weihe P, Zeka A, Raps H, Rampal P. Human Health and Ocean Pollution. Ann Glob Health 2020; 86:151. [PMID: 33354517 PMCID: PMC7731724 DOI: 10.5334/aogh.2831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pollution - unwanted waste released to air, water, and land by human activity - is the largest environmental cause of disease in the world today. It is responsible for an estimated nine million premature deaths per year, enormous economic losses, erosion of human capital, and degradation of ecosystems. Ocean pollution is an important, but insufficiently recognized and inadequately controlled component of global pollution. It poses serious threats to human health and well-being. The nature and magnitude of these impacts are only beginning to be understood. Goals (1) Broadly examine the known and potential impacts of ocean pollution on human health. (2) Inform policy makers, government leaders, international organizations, civil society, and the global public of these threats. (3) Propose priorities for interventions to control and prevent pollution of the seas and safeguard human health. Methods Topic-focused reviews that examine the effects of ocean pollution on human health, identify gaps in knowledge, project future trends, and offer evidence-based guidance for effective intervention. Environmental Findings Pollution of the oceans is widespread, worsening, and in most countries poorly controlled. It is a complex mixture of toxic metals, plastics, manufactured chemicals, petroleum, urban and industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage. More than 80% arises from land-based sources. It reaches the oceans through rivers, runoff, atmospheric deposition and direct discharges. It is often heaviest near the coasts and most highly concentrated along the coasts of low- and middle-income countries. Plastic is a rapidly increasing and highly visible component of ocean pollution, and an estimated 10 million metric tons of plastic waste enter the seas each year. Mercury is the metal pollutant of greatest concern in the oceans; it is released from two main sources - coal combustion and small-scale gold mining. Global spread of industrialized agriculture with increasing use of chemical fertilizer leads to extension of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) to previously unaffected regions. Chemical pollutants are ubiquitous and contaminate seas and marine organisms from the high Arctic to the abyssal depths. Ecosystem Findings Ocean pollution has multiple negative impacts on marine ecosystems, and these impacts are exacerbated by global climate change. Petroleum-based pollutants reduce photosynthesis in marine microorganisms that generate oxygen. Increasing absorption of carbon dioxide into the seas causes ocean acidification, which destroys coral reefs, impairs shellfish development, dissolves calcium-containing microorganisms at the base of the marine food web, and increases the toxicity of some pollutants. Plastic pollution threatens marine mammals, fish, and seabirds and accumulates in large mid-ocean gyres. It breaks down into microplastic and nanoplastic particles containing multiple manufactured chemicals that can enter the tissues of marine organisms, including species consumed by humans. Industrial releases, runoff, and sewage increase frequency and severity of HABs, bacterial pollution, and anti-microbial resistance. Pollution and sea surface warming are triggering poleward migration of dangerous pathogens such as the Vibrio species. Industrial discharges, pharmaceutical wastes, pesticides, and sewage contribute to global declines in fish stocks. Human Health Findings Methylmercury and PCBs are the ocean pollutants whose human health effects are best understood. Exposures of infants in utero to these pollutants through maternal consumption of contaminated seafood can damage developing brains, reduce IQ and increase children's risks for autism, ADHD and learning disorders. Adult exposures to methylmercury increase risks for cardiovascular disease and dementia. Manufactured chemicals - phthalates, bisphenol A, flame retardants, and perfluorinated chemicals, many of them released into the seas from plastic waste - can disrupt endocrine signaling, reduce male fertility, damage the nervous system, and increase risk of cancer. HABs produce potent toxins that accumulate in fish and shellfish. When ingested, these toxins can cause severe neurological impairment and rapid death. HAB toxins can also become airborne and cause respiratory disease. Pathogenic marine bacteria cause gastrointestinal diseases and deep wound infections. With climate change and increasing pollution, risk is high that Vibrio infections, including cholera, will increase in frequency and extend to new areas. All of the health impacts of ocean pollution fall disproportionately on vulnerable populations in the Global South - environmental injustice on a planetary scale. Conclusions Ocean pollution is a global problem. It arises from multiple sources and crosses national boundaries. It is the consequence of reckless, shortsighted, and unsustainable exploitation of the earth's resources. It endangers marine ecosystems. It impedes the production of atmospheric oxygen. Its threats to human health are great and growing, but still incompletely understood. Its economic costs are only beginning to be counted.Ocean pollution can be prevented. Like all forms of pollution, ocean pollution can be controlled by deploying data-driven strategies based on law, policy, technology, and enforcement that target priority pollution sources. Many countries have used these tools to control air and water pollution and are now applying them to ocean pollution. Successes achieved to date demonstrate that broader control is feasible. Heavily polluted harbors have been cleaned, estuaries rejuvenated, and coral reefs restored.Prevention of ocean pollution creates many benefits. It boosts economies, increases tourism, helps restore fisheries, and improves human health and well-being. It advances the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). These benefits will last for centuries. Recommendations World leaders who recognize the gravity of ocean pollution, acknowledge its growing dangers, engage civil society and the global public, and take bold, evidence-based action to stop pollution at source will be critical to preventing ocean pollution and safeguarding human health.Prevention of pollution from land-based sources is key. Eliminating coal combustion and banning all uses of mercury will reduce mercury pollution. Bans on single-use plastic and better management of plastic waste reduce plastic pollution. Bans on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have reduced pollution by PCBs and DDT. Control of industrial discharges, treatment of sewage, and reduced applications of fertilizers have mitigated coastal pollution and are reducing frequency of HABs. National, regional and international marine pollution control programs that are adequately funded and backed by strong enforcement have been shown to be effective. Robust monitoring is essential to track progress.Further interventions that hold great promise include wide-scale transition to renewable fuels; transition to a circular economy that creates little waste and focuses on equity rather than on endless growth; embracing the principles of green chemistry; and building scientific capacity in all countries.Designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) will safeguard critical ecosystems, protect vulnerable fish stocks, and enhance human health and well-being. Creation of MPAs is an important manifestation of national and international commitment to protecting the health of the seas.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John J. Stegeman
- Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, US
| | - Lora E. Fleming
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, GB
- University of Exeter Medical School, GB
| | | | - Donald M. Anderson
- Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, US
| | | | | | - Nicolas Chevalier
- Université Côte d’Azur, FR
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Inserm, C3M, FR
| | - Lilian Corra
- International Society of Doctors for the Environment (ISDE), CH
- Health and Environment of the Global Alliance on Health and Pollution (GAHP), AR
| | | | - Marie-Yasmine Dechraoui Bottein
- Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, FR
- IOC Science and Communication Centre on Harmful Algae, University of Copenhagen, DK
- Ecotoxicologie et développement durable expertise ECODD, Valbonne, FR
| | - Barbara Demeneix
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, FR
- Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, FR
| | | | - Dimitri D. Deheyn
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, US
| | | | - Patrick Fénichel
- Université Côte d’Azur, FR
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Inserm, C3M, FR
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mark E. Hahn
- Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, US
| | | | - Philipp Hess
- Institut Français de Recherche pour l’Exploitation des Mers, FR
| | | | | | - Jacqueline McGlade
- Institute for Global Prosperity, University College London, GB
- Strathmore University Business School, Nairobi, KE
| | | | - Adetoun Mustapha
- Nigerian Institute for Medical Research, Lagos, NG
- Imperial College London, GB
| | | | | | | | - Christopher Reddy
- Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, US
| | - Joacim Rocklöv
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Section of Sustainable Health, Umeå University, Umeå, SE
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Pál Weihe
- University of the Faroe Islands and Department of Occupational Medicine and Public Health, FO
| | | | - Hervé Raps
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, MC
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Health and Sustainable Development, MC
| | - Patrick Rampal
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, MC
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Health and Sustainable Development, MC
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Xu M, Fu L, Zhang J, Wang T, Fan J, Zhu B, Dziugan P, Zhang B, Zhao H. Potential of Inactivated Bifidobacterium Strain in Attenuating Benzo(A)Pyrene Exposure-Induced Damage in Colon Epithelial Cells In Vitro. TOXICS 2020; 8:toxics8010012. [PMID: 32053893 PMCID: PMC7151743 DOI: 10.3390/toxics8010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Long-term exposure to benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) poses a serious genotoxic threat to human beings. This in vitro study investigated the potential of inactivated Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BI-04 in alleviating the damage caused by BaP in colon epithelial cells. A concentration of BaP higher than 50 μM strongly inhibited the growth of colon epithelial cells. The colon epithelial cells were treated with 50 μM BaP in the presence or absence of inactivated strain BI-04 (~5 × 108 CFU/mL). The BaP-induced apoptosis of the colon epithelial cells was retarded in the presence of B. lactis BI-04 through activation of the PI3K/ AKT signaling pathway, and p53 gene expression was decreased. The presence of the BI-04 strain reduced the intracellular oxidative stress and DNA damage incurred in the colon epithelial cells by BaP treatment due to the enhanced expression of antioxidant enzymes and metabolism-related enzymes (CYP1A1). The data from comet assay, qRT-PCR, and western blot analysis showed that the cytotoxic effects of BaP on colon epithelial cells were largely alleviated because the bifidobacterial strain could bind to this carcinogenic compound. The in vitro study highlights that the consumption of commercial probiotic strain BI-04 might be a promising strategy to mitigate BaP cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengfan Xu
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
| | - Lili Fu
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
| | - Junwen Zhang
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
| | - Tao Wang
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Junfeng Fan
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Baoqing Zhu
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Piotr Dziugan
- Institute of Fermentation Technology & Microbiology, Technical University of Lodz, 90924 Lodz, Poland
| | - Bolin Zhang
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: (B.Z.); (H.Z.)
| | - Hongfei Zhao
- College of Biological Science & Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (M.X.); (L.F.); (J.F.); (B.Z.)
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: (B.Z.); (H.Z.)
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