The reinstatement model and relapse prevention: a clinical perspective

Relapse after electric barrier-induced voluntary abstinence: A review

Relapse to drug use during abstinence is a defining feature of addiction. To date, however, results from studies using rat relapse/reinstatement models have yet to result in FDA-approved medications for relapse prevention. To address this translational gap, we and others have developed rat models of relapse after voluntary abstinence from drug self-administration. One of these models is the electric barrier conflict model. Here, we introduce the model, and then review studies on behavioral and neuropharmacological mechanisms of cue-induced relapse and incubation of drug seeking (time-dependent increase in drug seeking during abstinence) after electric barrier-induced abstinence. We also briefly discuss future directions and potential clinical implications. One major conclusion of our review is that the brain mechanisms controlling drug relapse after electrical barrier-induced voluntary abstinence are likely distinct from those controlling relapse after homecage forced abstinence.

Examining a punishment-related brain circuit with miniature fluorescence microscopes and deep learning

In humans experiencing substance use disorder (SUD), abstinence from drug use is often motivated by a desire to avoid some undesirable consequence of further use: health effects, legal ramifications, etc. This process can be experimentally modeled in rodents by training and subsequently punishing an operant response in a context-induced reinstatement procedure. Understanding the biobehavioral mechanisms underlying punishment learning is critical to understanding both abstinence and relapse in individuals with SUD. To date, most investigations into the neural mechanisms of context-induced reinstatement following punishment have utilized discrete loss-of-function manipulations that do not capture ongoing changes in neural circuitry related to punishment-induced behavior change. Here, we describe a two-pronged approach to analyzing the biobehavioral mechanisms of punishment learning using miniature fluorescence microscopes and deep learning algorithms. We review recent advancements in both techniques and consider a target neural circuit.

Relapse after intermittent access to cocaine: Discriminative cues more effectively trigger drug seeking than do conditioned cues

RATIONALE

When people with drug addiction encounter cues associated with drug use, this can trigger cravings and relapse. These cues can include conditioned stimuli (CSs) signaling drug delivery and discriminative stimuli (DSs) signaling drug availability. Compared to CS effects, DS effects are less explored in preclinical studies on cue-induced relapse.

OBJECTIVE

We compared CS and DS effects on reward seeking following abstinence from intermittent-access cocaine (or sucrose) self-administration.

METHODS

During 15-20 intermittent-access sessions, rats self-administered i.v. cocaine or sucrose pellets paired with a light-tone CS. Cocaine/sucrose was available for 5-min (signalled by a light; DS+) and unavailable for 25 min (signalled by different lighting conditions; DS-), and this cycled for 4 h/session. Following abstinence, we measured cocaine/sucrose seeking under extinction triggered by CS and DS presentation, and instrumental responding reinforced by these cues.

RESULTS

Across intermittent-access sessions, rats increased lever pressing for cocaine or sucrose during DS+ periods and decreased responding during DS- periods. On days 2 and 21 of abstinence, only presentation of the DS+ or DS+ and CS combined elicited increased cocaine/sucrose-seeking behaviour (i.e., increased active lever presses). Presenting the DS- alongside the DS+ suppressed the increased cocaine-seeking behaviour otherwise produced by the DS+ . Finally, on day 21 of abstinence, rats showed equivalent levels of lever pressing reinforced by the DS+ , CS and by the DS+ and CS combined, suggesting comparable conditioned reinforcing value.

CONCLUSIONS

After intermittent self-administration, cocaine-associated DSs and CSs acquire similar conditioned reinforcing properties, but DSs more effectively trigger increases in drug seeking.

Role of Piriform Cortex and Its Afferent Projections in Relapse to Fentanyl Seeking after Food Choice-Induced Voluntary Abstinence

We previously demonstrated a role of piriform cortex (Pir) in relapse to fentanyl seeking after food choice-induced voluntary abstinence. Here, we used this model to further study the role of Pir and its afferent projections in fentanyl relapse. We trained male and female rats to self-administer palatable food pellets for 6 d (6 h/day) and fentanyl (2.5 µg/kg/infusion, i.v.) for 12 d (6 h/day). We assessed relapse to fentanyl seeking after 12 voluntary abstinence sessions, achieved through a discrete choice procedure between fentanyl and palatable food (20 trials/session). We determined projection-specific activation of Pir afferents during fentanyl relapse with Fos plus the retrograde tracer cholera toxin B (injected into Pir). Fentanyl relapse was associated with increased Fos expression in anterior insular cortex (AI) and prelimbic cortex (PL) neurons projecting to Pir. We next used an anatomical disconnection procedure to determine the causal role of these two projections (AI→Pir and PL→Pir) in fentanyl relapse. Contralateral but not ipsilateral disconnection of AI→Pir projections decreased fentanyl relapse but not reacquisition of fentanyl self-administration. In contrast, contralateral but not ipsilateral disconnection of PL→Pir projections modestly decreased reacquisition but not relapse. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting and quantitative PCR data showed molecular changes within Pir Fos-expressing neurons associated with fentanyl relapse. Finally, we found minimal or no sex differences in fentanyl self-administration, fentanyl versus food choice, and fentanyl relapse. Our results indicate that AI→Pir and PL→Pir projections play dissociable roles in nonreinforced relapse to fentanyl seeking versus reacquisition of fentanyl self-administration after food choice-induced voluntary abstinence.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We previously showed a role of Pir in fentanyl relapse after food choice-induced voluntary abstinence in rats, a procedure mimicking human abstinence or a significant reduction in drug self-administration because of the availability of alternative nondrug rewards. Here, we aimed to further characterize the role of Pir in fentanyl relapse by investigating the role of Pir afferent projections and analyzing molecular changes in relapse-activated Pir neurons. We identified dissociable roles of two Pir afferent projections (AI→Pir and PL→Pir) in relapse to fentanyl seeking versus reacquisition of fentanyl self-administration after voluntary abstinence. We also characterized molecular changes within Pir Fos-expressing neurons associated with fentanyl relapse.

Increased heroin intake and relapse vulnerability in intermittent relative to continuous self-administration: Sex differences in rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Studies using intermittent-access drug self-administration show increased motivation to take and seek cocaine and fentanyl, relative to continuous access. In this study, we examined the effects of intermittent- and continuous-access self-administration on heroin intake, patterns of self-administration and cue-induced heroin-seeking, after forced or voluntary abstinence, in male and female rats. We also modelled brain levels of heroin and its active metabolites.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Rats were trained to self-administer a palatable solution and then heroin (0.075 mg·kg^-1 per inf) either continuously (6 h·day^-1 ; 10 days) or intermittently (6 h·day^-1 ; 5-min access every 30-min; 10 days). Brain levels of heroin and its metabolites were modelled using a pharmacokinetic software. Next, heroin-seeking was assessed after 1 or 21 abstinence days. Between tests, rats underwent either forced or voluntary abstinence. The oestrous cycle was measured using a vaginal smear test.

KEY RESULTS

Intermittent access exacerbated heroin self-administration and was characterized by a burst-like intake, yielding higher brain peaks of heroin and 6-monoacetylmorphine concentrations. Moreover, intermittent access increased cue-induced heroin-seeking during early, but not late abstinence. Heroin-seeking was higher in females after intermittent, but not continuous access, and this effect was independent of the oestrous cycle.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Intermittent heroin access in rats resembles critical features of heroin use disorder: a self-administration pattern characterized by repeated large doses of heroin and higher relapse vulnerability during early abstinence. This has significant implications for refining animal models of substance use disorder and for better understanding of the neuroadaptations responsible for this disorder.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed issue on Advances in Opioid Pharmacology at the Time of the Opioid Epidemic. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v180.7/issuetoc.

Role of ventral subiculum neuronal ensembles in incubation of oxycodone craving after electric barrier-induced voluntary abstinence

High relapse rate is a key feature of opioid addiction. In humans, abstinence is often voluntary due to negative consequences of opioid seeking. To mimic this human condition, we recently introduced a rat model of incubation of oxycodone craving after electric barrier-induced voluntary abstinence. Incubation of drug craving refers to time-dependent increases in drug seeking after cessation of drug self-administration. Here, we used the activity marker Fos, muscimol-baclofen (GABAa + GABAb receptor agonists) global inactivation, Daun02-selective inactivation of putative relapse-associated neuronal ensembles, and fluorescence-activated cell sorting of Fos-positive cells and quantitative polymerase chain reaction to demonstrate a key role of vSub neuronal ensembles in incubation of oxycodone craving after voluntary abstinence, but not homecage forced abstinence. We also used a longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging method and showed that functional connectivity changes in vSub-related circuits predict opioid relapse after abstinence induced by adverse consequences of opioid seeking.

The Protective Effect of Social Reward on Opioid and Psychostimulant Reward and Relapse: Behavior, Pharmacology, and Brain Regions

Until recently, most modern neuroscience research on addiction using animal models did not incorporate manipulations of social factors. Social factors play a critical role in human addiction: social isolation and exclusion can promote drug use and relapse, while social connections and inclusion tend to be protective. Here, we discuss the state of the literature on social factors in animal models of opioid and psychostimulant preference, self-administration, and relapse. We first summarize results from rodent studies on behavioral, pharmacological, and circuit mechanisms of the protective effect of traditional experimenter-controlled social interaction procedures on opioid and psychostimulant conditioned place preference, self-administration, and relapse. Next, we summarize behavioral and brain-mechanism results from studies using newer operant social-interaction procedures that inhibit opioid and psychostimulant self-administration and relapse. We conclude by discussing how the reviewed studies point to future directions for the addiction field and other neuroscience and psychiatric fields, and their implications for mechanistic understanding of addiction and development of new treatments.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In this review, we propose that incorporating social factors into modern neuroscience research on addiction could improve mechanistic accounts of addiction and help close gaps in translating discovery to treatment. We first summarize rodent studies on behavioral, pharmacological, and circuit mechanisms of the protective effect of both traditional experimenter-controlled and newer operant social-interaction procedures. We then discuss potential future directions and clinical implications.

Can we enhance the clinical efficacy of cognitive and psychological approaches to treat substance use disorders through understanding their neurobiological mechanisms?

Despite decades of research in the field of addiction, relapse rates for substance use disorders remain high. Consequently, there has been growing focus on providing evidence-based treatments for substance use disorders, resulting in the increased development and use of cognitive and psychological interventions. Such treatment approaches, including contingency management, community-reinforcement approach, and cognitive bias modification, have shown promising clinical efficacy in reducing substance use and promoting abstinence during treatment. However, these interventions are still somewhat limited in achieving sustained periods of abstinence post-treatment. The neurobiological mechanisms underpinning these treatment approaches remain largely unknown and under-studied, in part, due to a lack of translational animal models. The adoption of a reverse translational approach may assist in development of more representative models that can facilitate elucidation of the mechanisms behind these clinically relevant interventions. This review examines our current understanding of addiction neurobiology from clinical, preclinical research and existing animal models, and considers how the efficacy of such behavioral-oriented interventions alone, or in combination with pharmacotherapy, may be enhanced to improve treatment outcomes.

Sex-dependent effects of chronic stress on punished cocaine self-administration and cue-induced relapse to cocaine seeking

We tested the effects of chronic stress on cocaine relapse after drug-reinforced responding was suppressed by punishment, an animal model of human relapse after self-imposed abstinence due to the negative consequences of drug use. Male rats displayed greater resistance to punishment than females, but daily stress decreased this resistance. Only female rats with a history of chronic stress displayed increased responding for cocaine cues from abstinence Day 1 to Day 8. Thus, the effects of chronic stress on punished cocaine self-administration and cue-induced relapse are dependent on biological sex, and may have implications for more targeted treatments for cocaine addiction.

A comparison of reinforcing effectiveness and drug-seeking reinstatement of 2-fluorodeschloroketamine and ketamine in self-administered rats

2-Fluorodeschloroketamine (2F-DCK), a structural analog of ketamine, has been reported to cause impaired consciousness, agitation, and hallucination in abuse cases. It has similar reinforcing and discriminative effects as ketamine. However, the reinforcing efficacy and drug-seeking reinstatement of this analog have not been clarified to date. In this study, the effectiveness of 2F-DCK and ketamine was compared using a behavioral economics demand curve. The reinstatement of 2F-DCK- and ketamine-seeking behaviors induced by either conditioned cues or self-priming was also analyzed. Rats were intravenously self-administered 2F-DCK and ketamine at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg/infusion under a reinforcing schedule of fixed ratio 1 (FR1) with 4 h of daily training for at least 10 consecutive days. The elasticity coefficient parameter α and the essential value of the demand curve in the two groups were similar. Both groups of rats showed significant drug-seeking behavior induced either by conditional cues or by 2F-DCK and ketamine priming. Moreover, the α parameter was inversely related to the degree of reinstatement induced by cues or drug priming in both groups. In total, the expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (p-CREB) in the nucleus accumbens in both extinguished and reinstated rats were significantly lower than those in the control. The expression of total Akt, glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) also decreased, but p-Akt, p-GSK-3β, p-mTOR, and p-ERK levels increased in both extinguished and reinstated rats. This is the first study to demonstrate that 2F-DCK has similar reinforcing efficacy, effectiveness, and post-withdrawal cravings as ketamine after repeated use. These data suggest that the downregulation of CREB/BDNF and the upregulation of the Akt/mTOR/GSK-3β signaling pathway in the nucleus accumbens may be involved in ketamine or 2F-DCK relapse.

Role of anterior insula cortex in context-induced relapse of nicotine-seeking

Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable death worldwide, and relapse during abstinence remains the critical barrier to successful treatment of tobacco addiction. During abstinence, environmental contexts associated with nicotine use can induce craving and contribute to relapse. The insular cortex (IC) is thought to be a critical substrate of nicotine addiction and relapse. However, its specific role in context-induced relapse of nicotine-seeking is not fully known. In this study, we report a novel rodent model of context-induced relapse to nicotine-seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence, which models self-imposed abstinence through increasing negative consequences of excessive drug use. Using the neuronal activity marker Fos we find that the anterior (aIC), but not the middle or posterior IC, shows increased activity during context-induced relapse. Combining Fos with retrograde labeling of aIC inputs, we show projections to aIC from contralateral aIC and basolateral amygdala exhibit increased activity during context-induced relapse. Next, we used fiber photometry in aIC and observed phasic increases in aIC activity around nicotine-seeking responses during self-administration, punishment, and the context-induced relapse tests. Next, we used chemogenetic inhibition in both male and female rats to determine whether activity in aIC is necessary for context-induced relapse. We found that chemogenetic inhibition of aIC decreased context-induced nicotine-seeking after either punishment- or extinction-imposed abstinence. These findings highlight the critical role nicotine-associated contexts play in promoting relapse, and they show that aIC activity is critical for this context-induced relapse following both punishment and extinction-imposed abstinence.

Therapeutic Potential of Histamine H3 Receptors in Substance Use Disorders

Substance use disorders are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, and available pharmacological treatments are of modest efficacy. Histamine is a biogenic amine with four types of receptors. The histamine H₃ receptor (H₃R) is an autoreceptor and also an heteroreceptor. H₃Rs are highly expressed in the basal ganglia, hippocampus and cortex, and regulate a number of neurotransmitters including acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA and dopamine. Its function and localization suggest that the H₃R may be relevant to a number of psychiatric disorders and could represent a potential therapeutic target for substance use disorders. The purpose of the present review is to summarize preclinical studies investigating the effects of H₃R agonists and antagonists on animal models of alcohol, nicotine and psychostimulant use. At present, the effects of H₃R antagonists such as thioperamide, pitolisant or ciproxifan have been investigated in drug-induced locomotion, conditioned place preference, drug self-administration, reinstatement, sensitization and drug discrimination. For alcohol and nicotine, the effects of H₃R ligands on two-bottle choice and memory tasks, respectively, have also been investigated. The results of these studies are inconsistent. For alcohol, H₃R antagonists generally decreased the reward-related properties of ethanol, which suggests that H₃R antagonists may be effective as a treatment option for alcohol use disorder. However, the effects of H₃R antagonists on nicotine and psychostimulant motivation and reward are less clear. H₃R antagonists potentiated the abuse-related properties of nicotine, but only a handful of studies have been conducted. For psychostimulants, evidence is mixed and suggests that more research is needed to establish whether H₃R antagonists are a viable therapeutic option. The fact that different drugs of abuse have different brain targets may explain the differential effects of H₃R ligands.

The Role of Dopamine D3 Receptors in Tobacco Use Disorder: A Synthesis of the Preclinical and Clinical Literature

Tobacco smoking is a significant cause of preventable morbidity and mortality globally. Current pharmacological approaches to treat tobacco use disorder (TUD) are only partly effective and novel approaches are needed. Dopamine has a well-established role in substance use disorders, including TUD, and there has been a long-standing interest in developing agents that target the dopaminergic system to treat substance use disorders. Dopamine has 5 receptor subtypes (DRD1 to DRD5). Given the localization and safety profile of the dopamine receptor D3 (DRD3), it is of therapeutic potential for TUD. In this chapter, the preclinical and clinical literature investigating the role of DRD3 in processes relevant to TUD will be reviewed, including in nicotine reinforcement, drug reinstatement, conditioned stimuli and cue-reactivity, executive function, and withdrawal. Similarities and differences in findings from the animal and human work will be synthesized and findings will be discussed in relation to the therapeutic potential of targeting DRD3 in TUD.

Orbitofrontal cortex and dorsal striatum functional connectivity predicts incubation of opioid craving after voluntary abstinence

We recently introduced a rat model of incubation of opioid craving after voluntary abstinence induced by negative consequences of drug seeking. Here, we used resting-state functional MRI to determine whether longitudinal functional connectivity changes in orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) circuits predict incubation of opioid craving after voluntary abstinence. We trained rats to self-administer for 14 d either intravenous oxycodone or palatable food. After 3 d, we introduced an electric barrier for 12 d that caused cessation of reward self-administration. We tested the rats for oxycodone or food seeking under extinction conditions immediately after self-administration training (early abstinence) and after electric barrier exposure (late abstinence). We imaged their brains before self-administration and during early and late abstinence. We analyzed changes in OFC functional connectivity induced by reward self-administration and electric barrier-induced abstinence. Oxycodone seeking was greater during late than early abstinence (incubation of oxycodone craving). Oxycodone self-administration experience increased OFC functional connectivity with dorsal striatum and related circuits that was positively correlated with incubated oxycodone seeking. In contrast, electric barrier-induced abstinence decreased OFC functional connectivity with dorsal striatum and related circuits that was negatively correlated with incubated oxycodone seeking. Food seeking was greater during early than late abstinence (abatement of food craving). Food self-administration experience and electric barrier-induced abstinence decreased or maintained functional connectivity in these circuits that were not correlated with abated food seeking. Opposing functional connectivity changes in OFC with dorsal striatum and related circuits induced by opioid self-administration versus voluntary abstinence predicted individual differences in incubation of opioid craving.

Translational opportunities in animal and human models to study alcohol use disorder

Animal and human laboratory paradigms offer invaluable approaches to study the complex etiologies and mechanisms of alcohol use disorder (AUD). We contend that human laboratory models provide a "bridge" between preclinical and clinical studies of AUD by allowing for well-controlled experimental manipulations in humans with AUD. As such, examining the consilience between experimental models in animals and humans in the laboratory provides unique opportunities to refine the translational utility of such models. The overall goal of the present review is to provide a systematic description and contrast of commonly used animal paradigms for the study of AUD, as well as their human laboratory analogs if applicable. While there is a wide breadth of animal species in AUD research, the paradigms discussed in this review rely predominately on rodent research. The overarching goal of this effort is to provide critical analysis of these animal models and to link them to human laboratory models of AUD. By systematically contrasting preclinical and controlled human laboratory models, we seek to identify opportunities to enhance their translational value through forward and reverse translation. We provide future directions to reconcile differences between animal and human work and to improve translational research for AUD.

Animal Models of the Behavioral Symptoms of Substance Use Disorders

To more effectively manage substance use disorders, it is imperative to understand the neural, genetic, and psychological underpinnings of addictive behavior. To contribute to this understanding, considerable efforts have been made to develop translational animal models that capture key behavioral characteristics of addiction on the basis of DSM5 criteria of substance use disorders. In this review, we summarize empirical evidence for the occurrence of addiction-like behavior in animals. These symptoms include escalation of drug use, neurocognitive deficits, resistance to extinction, exaggerated motivation for drugs, increased reinstatement of drug seeking after extinction, preference for drugs over nondrug rewards, and resistance to punishment. The occurrence of addiction-like behavior in laboratory animals has opened the opportunity to investigate the neural, genetic, and psychological background of key aspects of addiction, which may ultimately contribute to the prevention and treatment of substance use disorders.

Animal Models of Drug Relapse and Craving after Voluntary Abstinence: A Review

Relapse to drug use during abstinence is a defining feature of addiction. During the last several decades, this clinical scenario has been studied at the preclinical level using classic relapse/reinstatement models in which drug seeking is assessed after experimenter-imposed home-cage forced abstinence or extinction of the drug-reinforced responding in the self-administration chambers. To date, however, results from studies using rat relapse/reinstatement models have yet to result in Food and Drug Administration-approved medications for relapse prevention. The reasons for this state of affairs are complex and multifaceted, but one potential reason is that, in humans, abstinence is often self-imposed or voluntary and occurs either because the negative consequences of drug use outweigh the drug's rewarding effects or because of the availability of nondrug alternative rewards that are chosen over the drug. Based on these considerations, we and others have recently developed rat models of relapse after voluntary abstinence, achieved either by introducing adverse consequences to drug taking (punishment) or seeking (electric barrier) or by providing mutually exclusive choices between the self-administered drug and nondrug rewards (palatable food or social interaction). In this review, we provide an overview of these translationally relevant relapse models and discuss recent neuropharmacological findings from studies using these models. We also discuss sex as a biological variable, future directions, and clinical implications of results from relapse studies using voluntary abstinence models. Our main conclusion is that the neuropharmacological mechanisms controlling relapse to drug seeking after voluntary abstinence are often different from the mechanisms controlling relapse after home-cage forced abstinence or reinstatement after extinction. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review describes recently developed rat models of relapse after voluntary abstinence, achieved either by introducing adverse consequences to drug taking or seeking or by providing mutually exclusive choices between the self-administered drug and nondrug rewards. This review discusses recent neuropharmacological findings from studies using these models and discusses future directions and clinical implications.

Low-dose polypharmacology targeting dopamine D1 and D3 receptors reduces cue-induced relapse to heroin seeking in rats

Chemical compounds that target dopamine (DA) D1 or D3 receptors have shown promise as potential interventions in animal models of cue-induced relapse. However, undesirable side effects or pharmacodynamic profiles have limited the advancement of new compounds in preclinical studies when administered as independent treatments. In this series of experiments, we explored the effects of coadministration of a D1-receptor partial agonist (SKF 77434) and a D3-receptor antagonist (NGB 2904) in heroin-seeking rats within a "conflict" model of abstinence and cue-induced relapse. Rats were first trained to press a lever to self-administer heroin, and drug delivery was paired contingently with cues (e.g., light and pump noise). Self-initiated abstinence was facilitated by applying electrical current to the flooring in front of the levers. Lastly, a relapse response was provoked by noncontingent presentation of conditioned cues. Prior to provocation, rats received a systemic injection of SKF 77434, NGB 2904, or a combination of both compounds to assess treatment effects on lever pressing. Results indicated that the coadministration of low (i.e., independently ineffective) doses of both compounds was more effective in reducing cue-induced relapse to heroin seeking than either compound alone, with some evidence of drug synergism. Follow-up studies indicated that this reduction was not due to motoric impairment nor enhanced sensitivity to the electrified flooring and that this treatment did not significantly affect motivation for food. Implications for the treatment of opiate use disorder and recommendations for further research are discussed.

Neural mechanisms underlying incubation of methamphetamine craving: A mini-review

Cue-induced drug craving and seeking progressively increases during abstinence. This "incubation of drug craving" phenomenon has been observed in both laboratory animals and humans. Preclinical studies identified several neural mechanisms underlying incubation of drug craving after forced abstinence, primarily focusing on cocaine. Recently, studies started focusing on another powerful psychostimulant, methamphetamine (Meth), and developed new incubation procedures (choice-induced and punishment-induced abstinence). Here, we review mechanistic studies at the circuit, synaptic and molecular levels on incubation of Meth craving. First, we provide an overview of neural adaptations associated with prolonged forced abstinence after extended-access Meth self-administration. Next, we review studies examining the causal roles of discrete brain regions and associated circuits, glutamate transmission, histone deacetylase 5 and oxytocin in incubation of Meth craving after forced abstinence. Lastly, we review causal and correlational studies examining the mechanisms underlying incubation of Meth craving after choice-induced voluntary abstinence and punishment-induced abstinence, respectively. We conclude by discussing the translational potential of these mechanistic studies in Meth relapse prevention in human drug users.

Improving translation of animal models of addiction and relapse by reverse translation

Critical features of human addiction are increasingly being incorporated into complementary animal models, including escalation of drug intake, punished drug seeking and taking, intermittent drug access, choice between drug and non-drug rewards, and assessment of individual differences based on criteria in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). Combined with new technologies, these models advanced our understanding of brain mechanisms of drug self-administration and relapse, but these mechanistic gains have not led to improvements in addiction treatment. This problem is not unique to addiction neuroscience, but it is an increasing source of disappointment and calls to regroup. Here we first summarize behavioural and neurobiological results from the animal models mentioned above. We then propose a reverse translational approach, whose goal is to develop models that mimic successful treatments: opioid agonist maintenance, contingency management and the community-reinforcement approach. These reverse-translated 'treatments' may provide an ecologically relevant platform from which to discover new circuits, test new medications and improve translation.

Neuroadaptations in the dorsal hippocampus underlie cocaine seeking during prolonged abstinence

Relapse vulnerability in substance use disorder is attributed to persistent cue-induced drug seeking that intensifies (or "incubates") during drug abstinence. Incubated cocaine seeking has been observed in both humans with cocaine use disorder and in preclinical relapse models. This persistent relapse vulnerability is mediated by neuroadaptations in brain regions involved in reward and motivation. The dorsal hippocampus (DH) is involved in context-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking but the role of the DH in cocaine seeking during prolonged abstinence has not been investigated. Here we found that transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily member activin A is increased in the DH on abstinence day (AD) 30 but not AD1 following extended-access cocaine self-administration compared to saline controls. Moreover, activin A does not affect cocaine seeking on AD1 but regulates cocaine seeking on AD30 in a bidirectional manner. Next, we found that activin A regulates phosphorylation of NMDA receptor (NMDAR) subunit GluN2B and that GluN2B-containing NMDARs also regulate expression of cocaine seeking on AD30. Activin A and GluN2B-containing NMDARs have both previously been implicated in hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Therefore, we examined synaptic strength in the DH during prolonged abstinence and observed an increase in moderate long-term potentiation (LTP) in cocaine-treated rats compared to saline controls. Lastly, we examined the role of DH projections to the lateral septum (LS), a brain region implicated in cocaine seeking and found that DH projections to the LS govern cocaine seeking on AD30. Taken together, this study demonstrates a role for the DH in relapse behavior following prolonged abstinence from cocaine self-administration.

Effect of the dopamine stabilizer (-)-OSU6162 on potentiated incubation of opioid craving after electric barrier-induced voluntary abstinence

In the classical incubation of drug craving rat model, drug seeking is assessed after homecage forced abstinence. However, human abstinence is often voluntary because negative consequences of drug seeking outweigh the desire for the drug. Here, we developed a rat model of incubation of opioid craving after electric barrier-induced voluntary abstinence and determined whether the dopamine stabilizer (-)-OSU6162 would decrease this new form of incubation. We trained male and female rats to self-administer oxycodone (0.1 mg/kg/infusion, 6 h/day) for 14 days. We then exposed them to either homecage forced abstinence or voluntary abstinence induced by an electric barrier of increasing intensity near the drug-paired lever. On abstinence days 1, 15, or 30, we tested the rats for oxycodone seeking without shock and drug. We also examined the effect of (-)-OSU6162 (7.5 and 15 mg/kg) on oxycodone seeking on abstinence day 1 or after 15 days of either voluntary or forced abstinence. Independent of sex, the time-dependent increase in oxycodone seeking after cessation of opioid self-administration (incubation of opioid craving) was stronger after voluntary abstinence than after forced abstinence. In males, (-)-OSU6162 decreased incubated (day 15) but not non-incubated (day 1) oxycodone seeking after either voluntary or forced abstinence. In females, (-)-OSU6162 modestly decreased incubated oxycodone seeking after voluntary but not forced abstinence. Results suggest that voluntary abstinence induced by negative consequences of drug seeking can paradoxically potentiate opioid craving and relapse. We propose the dopamine stabilizer (-)-OSU6162 may serve as an adjunct pharmacological treatment to prevent relapse in male opioid users.

Role of Projections between Piriform Cortex and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Relapse to Fentanyl Seeking after Palatable Food Choice-Induced Voluntary Abstinence

We recently developed a rat model of relapse to drug seeking after food choice-induced voluntary abstinence. Here, we used this model to study the role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and its afferent projections in relapse to fentanyl seeking. We trained male and female rats to self-administer palatable food pellets for 6 d (6 h/d) and intravenous fentanyl (2.5 μg/kg/infusion) for 12 d (6 h/d). We assessed relapse to fentanyl seeking after 13-14 voluntary abstinence days, achieved through a discrete choice procedure between fentanyl infusions and palatable food (20 trials/d). In both sexes, relapse after food choice-induced abstinence was associated with increased expression of the activity marker Fos in the OFC. Pharmacological inactivation of the OFC with muscimol plus baclofen (50 + 50 ng/side) decreased relapse to fentanyl seeking. We then determined projection-specific activation of OFC afferents during the relapse test by using Fos plus the retrograde tracer cholera toxin B (injected into the OFC). Relapse to fentanyl seeking was associated with increased Fos expression in the piriform cortex (Pir) neurons projecting to the OFC, but not in projections from the basolateral amygdala and thalamus. Pharmacological inactivation of the Pir with muscimol plus baclofen decreased relapse to fentanyl seeking after voluntary abstinence. Next, we used an anatomical disconnection procedure to determine whether projections between the Pir and OFC are critical for relapse to fentanyl seeking. Unilateral muscimol plus baclofen injections into the Pir in one hemisphere plus unilateral muscimol plus baclofen injections into the OFC in the contralateral, but not ipsilateral, hemisphere decreased relapse. Our results identify Pir-OFC projections as a new motivation-related pathway critical to relapse to opioid seeking after voluntary abstinence.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT There are few preclinical studies of fentanyl relapse, and these studies have used experimenter-imposed extinction or forced abstinence procedures. In humans, however, abstinence is often voluntary, with drug available in the drug environment but forgone in favor of nondrug alternative reinforcers. We recently developed a rat model of drug relapse after palatable food choice-induced voluntary abstinence. Here, we used classical pharmacology, immunohistochemistry, and retrograde tracing to demonstrate a critical role of the piriform and orbitofrontal cortices in relapse to opioid seeking after voluntary abstinence.

Dynamic interactions of ceftriaxone and environmental variables suppress amphetamine seeking

Extrasynaptic glutamate within the nucleus accumbens (NAc) is a driver of relapse. Cocaine, ethanol, and methamphetamine reduce the expression of cystine-glutamate antiporter (xCT) and primary glial glutamate transporter 1 (GLT1) leading to increased extrasynaptic glutamate. Ceftriaxone (CTX) restores xCT and GLT1 expression and effectively suppresses cocaine and ethanol reinstatement, however, the effects of CTX on amphetamine (AMP) reinstatement are not determined. Rodents were reared in an enriched condition (EC), isolated (IC), or standard condition (SC) and trained in AMP self-administration (0.1 mg/kg/infusion). EC, IC, and SC rats received injections of SAL or CTX (200 mg/kg) after daily extinction sessions. Then rats were tested in cue- and AMP-induced reinstatement tests. We hypothesized that EC rearing would reduce reinstatement by altering GLT1 or xCT expression in the NAc and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). In Experiment 2, pair-housed rats received once-daily AMP (1.0 mg/kg i.p.) or SAL for eight days followed by once-daily CTX (200 mg/kg i.p.) or SAL injections for 10 days. CTX treatment reduced cue-induced drug seeking in EC rats but not IC or SC rats. In an AMP-induced reinstatement test, CTX reduced AMP-induced drug seeking in EC and SC rats, but not IC rats. Western blot analyses revealed that AMP self-administration and non-contingent repeated AMP exposure did not downregulate GLT1 or xCT in the NAc or mPFC. Therefore, the ability for EC housing to reduce amphetamine seeking may work through other mechanisms.

Relapse to opioid seeking in rat models: behavior, pharmacology and circuits

Lifetime relapse rates remain a major obstacle in addressing the current opioid crisis. Relapse to opioid use can be modeled in rodent studies where drug self-administration is followed by a period of abstinence and a subsequent test for drug seeking. Abstinence can be achieved through extinction training, forced abstinence, or voluntary abstinence. Voluntary abstinence can be accomplished by introducing adverse consequences of continued drug self-administration (e.g., punishment or electric barrier) or by introducing an alternative nondrug reward in a discrete choice procedure (drug versus palatable food or social interaction). In this review, we first discuss pharmacological and circuit mechanisms of opioid seeking, as assessed in the classical extinction-reinstatement model, where reinstatement is induced by reexposure to the self-administered drug (drug priming), discrete cues, discriminative cues, drug-associated contexts, different forms of stress, or withdrawal states. Next, we discuss pharmacological and circuit mechanisms of relapse after forced or voluntary abstinence, including the phenomenon of "incubation of heroin craving" (the time-dependent increases in heroin seeking during abstinence). We conclude by discussing future directions of preclinical relapse-related studies using opioid drugs.

Context-induced relapse after extinction versus punishment: similarities and differences

Results from clinical studies suggest that drug relapse and craving are often provoked by exposure to drug-associated contexts. Since 2002, this phenomenon has been modeled in laboratory animals using the ABA renewal model. In the classical version of this model, rats with a history of drug self-administration in one context (A) undergo extinction in a different context (B) and reinstate (or relapse to) drug seeking after exposure to the original drug-associated context (A). In a more recent version of the model introduced in 2013, the experimental conditions in context A are identical to those used in the classical model, but drug-reinforced responding in context B is suppressed by probabilistic punishment. The punishment-based ABA renewal model is proposed to resemble abstinence in humans, which is often initiated by the desire to avoid the negative consequences of drug use. The goal of our review is to discuss similarities and differences in mechanisms that play a role in suppression of drug seeking in context B and context-induced relapse to drug seeking in context A in the two models. We first describe psychological mechanisms that mediate extinction and punishment of drug-reinforced responding in context B. We then summarize recent findings on brain mechanisms of context-induced relapse of drug seeking after extinction, or punishment-imposed abstinence. These findings demonstrate both similarities and differences in brain mechanisms underlying relapse in the two variations of the ABA renewal model. We conclude by briefly discussing clinical implications of the preclinical studies.

Dopamine D1 Receptor Within Basolateral Amygdala Is Involved in Propofol Relapse Behavior Induced by Cues

Propofol has been proven to be potentially abused by humans and laboratory animals; however, studies that have examined propofol relapse behavior are limited, and its underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we examined whether basolateral amygdala-specific or systematic administration of the dopamine receptor antagonist alters cue-induced propofol-seeking behaviors in a rat model. Male Sprague-Dawley rats first received 14 days of propofol self-administration training, where active nose poke resulted in the delivery of propofol infusion paired with a tone and light cues. After 1-30 days of forced abstinence, the cue-induced propofol-seeking behaviors were tested in the operant chamber. We demonstrated, for the first time, after a few days of withdrawal from intravenous bolus administration of propofol, propofol-related cues could induce robust reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. Systematic administration of dopamine D₁ receptor antagonist (SCH-23390) or dopamine D₂ receptor antagonist (spiperone) inhibited propofol relapse behavior induced by drug-related cues. Furthermore, we show that microinfusion of SCH-23390 into basolateral amygdala dose-dependently attenuated cue-induced propofol drug-seeking behavior, whereas infusion of spiperone had no effect on the propofol relapse behavior. Our results reveal the involvement of dopamine receptors within the basolateral amygdala in the cue-induced propofol relapse behavior in rats.

Circuit and Synaptic Plasticity Mechanisms of Drug Relapse

High rates of relapse to drug use during abstinence is a defining feature of human drug addiction. This clinical scenario has been studied at the preclinical level using different animal models in which relapse to drug seeking is assessed after cessation of operant drug self-administration in rodents and monkeys. In our Society for Neuroscience (SFN) session entitled "Circuit and Synaptic Plasticity Mechanisms of Drug Relapse," we will discuss new developments of our understanding of circuits and synaptic plasticity mechanisms of drug relapse from studies combining established and novel animal models with state-of-the-art cellular, electrophysiology, anatomical, chemogenetic, and optogenetic methods. We will also discuss the translational implications of these new developments. In the mini-review that introduces our SFN session, we summarize results from our laboratories on behavioral, cellular, and circuit mechanisms of drug relapse within the context of our session.

Incubation of Methamphetamine but not Heroin Craving After Voluntary Abstinence in Male and Female Rats

We recently introduced an animal model of incubation of methamphetamine craving after choice-based voluntary abstinence in male rats. Here we studied the generality of this phenomenon to (1) female rats, and (2) male and female rats with a history of heroin self-administration. We first trained rats to self-administer palatable food pellets for 6 days (6 h per day) for either methamphetamine (0.1 mg/kg/infusion) or heroin (0.1 mg/kg/infusion) for 12 days (6 h/day). We then assessed relapse to drug seeking under extinction conditions after 1 and 21 abstinence days. Between tests, the rats underwent either voluntary abstinence (achieved via a discrete choice procedure between drug and palatable food; 20 trials/day) or home-cage forced abstinence. We found no sex differences in methamphetamine self-administration or in the strong preference for the palatable food over methamphetamine during the choice-based voluntary abstinence. In both sexes, methamphetamine seeking in the relapse tests was higher after 21 days of either voluntary or forced abstinence than after 1 day (incubation of methamphetamine craving). We also found no sex differences in heroin self-administration or the strong preference for the palatable food over heroin during the choice-based voluntary abstinence. However, male and female rats with a history of heroin self-administration showed incubation of heroin craving after forced but not voluntary abstinence. Our results show that incubation of methamphetamine craving after voluntary abstinence generalizes to female rats. Unexpectedly, prolonged voluntary abstinence prevented the emergence of incubation of heroin craving in both sexes.

Role of Dorsomedial Striatum Neuronal Ensembles in Incubation of Methamphetamine Craving after Voluntary Abstinence

We recently developed a rat model of incubation of methamphetamine craving after choice-based voluntary abstinence. Here, we studied the role of dorsolateral striatum (DLS) and dorsomedial striatum (DMS) in this incubation. We trained rats to self-administer palatable food pellets (6 d, 6 h/d) and methamphetamine (12 d, 6 h/d). We then assessed relapse to methamphetamine seeking under extinction conditions after 1 and 21 abstinence days. Between tests, the rats underwent voluntary abstinence (using a discrete choice procedure between methamphetamine and food; 20 trials/d) for 19 d. We used in situ hybridization to measure the colabeling of the activity marker Fos with Drd1 and Drd2 in DMS and DLS after the tests. Based on the in situ hybridization colabeling results, we tested the causal role of DMS D1 and D2 family receptors, and DMS neuronal ensembles in "incubated" methamphetamine seeking, using selective dopamine receptor antagonists (SCH39166 or raclopride) and the Daun02 chemogenetic inactivation procedure, respectively. Methamphetamine seeking was higher after 21 d of voluntary abstinence than after 1 d (incubation of methamphetamine craving). The incubated response was associated with increased Fos expression in DMS but not in DLS; Fos was colabeled with both Drd1 and Drd2 DMS injections of SCH39166 or raclopride selectively decreased methamphetamine seeking after 21 abstinence days. In Fos-lacZ transgenic rats, selective inactivation of relapse test-activated Fos neurons in DMS on abstinence day 18 decreased incubated methamphetamine seeking on day 21. Results demonstrate a role of DMS dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in the incubation of methamphetamine craving after voluntary abstinence and that DMS neuronal ensembles mediate this incubation.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

In human addicts, abstinence is often self-imposed and relapse can be triggered by exposure to drug-associated cues that induce drug craving. We recently developed a rat model of incubation of methamphetamine craving after choice-based voluntary abstinence. Here, we used classical pharmacology, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and the Daun02 inactivation procedure to demonstrate a critical role of dorsomedial striatum neuronal ensembles in this new form of incubation of drug craving.

Role of Ventral Subiculum in Context-Induced Relapse to Alcohol Seeking after Punishment-Imposed Abstinence

In many human alcoholics, abstinence is self-imposed because of the negative consequences of excessive alcohol use, and relapse is often triggered by exposure to environmental contexts associated with prior alcohol drinking. We recently developed a rat model of this human condition in which we train alcohol-preferring P rats to self-administer alcohol in one context (A), punish the alcohol-reinforced responding in a different context (B), and then test for relapse to alcohol seeking in Contexts A and B without alcohol or shock. Here, we studied the role of projections to nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell from ventral subiculum (vSub), basolateral amygdala, paraventricular thalamus, and ventral medial prefrontal cortex in context-induced relapse after punishment-imposed abstinence. First, we measured double-labeling of the neuronal activity marker Fos with the retrograde tracer cholera toxin subunit B (injected in NAc shell) and demonstrated that context-induced relapse is associated with selective activation of the vSub→NAc shell projection. Next, we reversibly inactivated the vSub with GABA receptor agonists (muscimol+baclofen) before the context-induced relapse tests and provided evidence for a causal role of vSub in this relapse. Finally, we used a dual-virus approach to restrict expression of the inhibitory κ opioid-receptor based DREADD (KORD) in vSub→NAc shell projection neurons. We found that systemic injections of the KORD agonist salvinorin B, which selectively inhibits KORD-expressing neurons, decreased context-induced relapse to alcohol seeking. Our results demonstrate a critical role of vSub in context-induced relapse after punishment-imposed abstinence and further suggest a role of the vSub→NAc projection in this relapse.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

In many human alcoholics, abstinence is self-imposed because of the negative consequences of excessive use, and relapse is often triggered by exposure to environmental contexts associated with prior alcohol use. Until recently, an animal model of this human condition did not exist. We developed a rat model of this human condition in which we train alcohol-preferring P rats to self-administer alcohol in one context (A), punish the alcohol-reinforced responding in a different context (B), and test for relapse to alcohol seeking in Contexts A and B. Here, we used neuroanatomical, neuropharmacological, and chemogenetic methods to demonstrate a role of ventral subiculum and potentially its projections to nucleus accumbens in context-induced relapse after punishment-imposed abstinence.

Abstinence-Conflict Model: Toward an Optimal Animal Model for Screening Medications Promoting Drug Abstinence

Drug addiction is a significant health and societal problem for which there is no highly effective long-term behavioral or pharmacological treatment. A rising concern are the use of illegal opiate drugs such as heroin and the misuse of legally available pain relievers that have led to serious deleterious health effects or even death. Therefore, treatment strategies that prolong opiate abstinence should be the primary focus of opiate treatment. Further, because the factors that support abstinence in humans and laboratory animals are similar, several animal models of abstinence and relapse have been developed. Here, we review a few animal models of abstinence and relapse and evaluate their validity and utility in addressing human behavior that leads to long-term drug abstinence. Then, a novel abstinence "conflict" model that more closely mimics human drug-seeking episodes by incorporating negative consequences for drug seeking (as are typical in humans, eg, incarceration and job loss) and while the drug remains readily available is discussed. Additionally, recent research investigating both cocaine and heroin seeking in rats using the animal conflict model is presented and the implications for heroin treatments are examined. Finally, it is argued that the use of animal abstinence/relapse models that more closely approximate human drug addiction, such as the abstinence-conflict model, could lead to a better understanding of the neurobiological and environmental factors that support long-term drug abstinence. In turn, this will lead to the development of more effective environmental and pharmacotherapeutic interventions to treat opiate addiction and addiction to other drugs of abuse.

Animal models of drug relapse and craving: From drug priming-induced reinstatement to incubation of craving after voluntary abstinence

High rates of relapse to drug use during abstinence is a defining feature of drug addiction. In abstinent drug users, drug relapse is often precipitated by acute exposure to the self-administered drug, drug-associated cues, stress, as well as by short-term and protracted withdrawal symptoms. In this review, we discuss different animal models that have been used to study behavioral and neuropharmacological mechanisms of these relapse-related phenomena. In the first part, we discuss relapse models in which abstinence is achieved through extinction training, including the established reinstatement model, as well as the reacquisition and resurgence models. In the second part, we discuss recent animal models in which drug relapse is assessed after either forced abstinence (e.g., the incubation of drug craving model) or voluntary (self-imposed) abstinence achieved either by introducing adverse consequences to ongoing drug self-administration (e.g., punishment) or by an alternative nondrug reward using a discrete choice (drug vs. palatable food) procedure. We conclude by briefly discussing the potential implications of the recent developments of animal models of drug relapse after voluntary abstinence to the development of medications for relapse prevention.

Effect of the Novel Positive Allosteric Modulator of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 2 AZD8529 on Incubation of Methamphetamine Craving After Prolonged Voluntary Abstinence in a Rat Model

BACKGROUND

Cue-induced methamphetamine craving increases after prolonged forced (experimenter-imposed) abstinence from the drug (incubation of methamphetamine craving). Here, we determined whether this incubation phenomenon would occur under conditions that promote voluntary (self-imposed) abstinence. We also determined the effect of the novel metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 positive allosteric modulator, AZD8529, on incubation of methamphetamine craving after forced or voluntary abstinence.

METHODS

We trained rats to self-administer palatable food (6 sessions) and then to self-administer methamphetamine under two conditions: 12 sessions (9 hours/day) or 50 sessions (3 hours/day). We then assessed cue-induced methamphetamine seeking in extinction tests after 1 or 21 abstinence days. Between tests, the rats underwent either forced abstinence (no access to the food- or drug-paired levers) or voluntary abstinence (achieved via a discrete choice procedure between methamphetamine and palatable food; 20 trials per day) for 19 days. We also determined the effect of subcutaneous injections of AZD8529 (20 and 40 mg/kg) on cue-induced methamphetamine seeking 1 day or 21 days after forced or voluntary abstinence.

RESULTS

Under both training and abstinence conditions, cue-induced methamphetamine seeking in the extinction tests was higher after 21 abstinence days than after 1 day (incubation of methamphetamine craving). AZD8529 decreased cue-induced methamphetamine seeking on day 21 but not day 1 of forced or voluntary abstinence.

CONCLUSIONS

We introduce a novel animal model to study incubation of drug craving and cue-induced drug seeking after prolonged voluntary abstinence, mimicking the human condition of relapse after successful contingency management treatment. Our data suggest that positive allosteric modulators of metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 should be considered for relapse prevention.

Environmental enrichment induces early heroin abstinence in an animal conflict model

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Heroin addiction is a significant health and societal problem for which there is no highly effective long-term behavioral or pharmacological treatment. Therefore, strategies that support heroin abstinence should be a primary focus of heroin treatment research. To this end, the current study used an animal conflict model that captures the aversive consequences of drug seeking (as are typical in humans, e.g., incarceration and job loss) to induce abstinence. Using this abstinence model, we examined the capacity of environmental enrichment (EE) to facilitate abstinence in heroin seeking rats.

METHODS

The procedure consisted of two phases: drug self-administration (phase 1) and electric barrier application (phase 2) that resulted in abstinence. For phase 1, male rats were trained to self-administer intravenous heroin under a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement. After self-administration was acquired, animals were housed either in EE or standard cages (non-EE control). During abstinence in phase 2, the electric barrier was introduced in the operant conditioning chambers by electrifying the floor area near the levers.

RESULTS

We found that EE rats achieved abstinence (zero active lever presses for 3 consecutive sessions) in significantly fewer sessions than NEE rats. Further, EE rats abstained at significantly lower electric currents than NEE rats.

CONCLUSIONS

EE facilitated abstinence in the conflict model. The current use of the abstinence-conflict model to investigate EE as a behavioral strategy to facilitate abstinence will help in the development of effective treatments for human addicts by bringing together the positive consequences of abstinent behavior in an enriched environment with the aversive consequences of drug seeking.

Neuronal circuitry underlying the impact of D3 receptor ligands in drug addiction

Since the cloning of the D3 receptor in the early 1990s, there has been a great deal of interest in this receptor as a possible therapeutic target for drug addiction. The development of a D3 ligand suitable for use in humans has remained elusive, so the study of the function of the D3 receptor and its possible therapeutic efficacy has largely been restricted to animals. Pre-clinical studies have established that systemic administration of D3 ligands, particularly antagonists and partial agonists, can alter drug-seeking in animals. Despite over a decade of research, few studies have investigated the effects of intra-cerebral infusion of D3 ligands on drug-seeking. In the present review, these studies are summarized, which have largely focused on stimulus-controlled behaviors. Converging evidence from studies of D3 receptor expression, Fos and pharmacological Magnetic Resonance Imaging (phMRI) is also provided to delineate some of the D3 brain systems involved in drug-seeking and taking. The data so far indicate that different brain systems may be involved in different types of stimulus control as well as drug taking.

A critical role of nucleus accumbens dopamine D1-family receptors in renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence

In humans, places or contexts previously associated with alcohol use often provoke relapse during abstinence. This phenomenon is modeled in laboratory animals using the ABA renewal procedure, in which extinction training in context (B) suppresses alcohol seeking, and renewal of this seeking occurs when the animal returns to the original training context (A). However, extinction training does not adequately capture the motivation for abstinence in human alcoholics who typically self-initiate abstinence in response to the negative consequences of excessive use. We recently developed a procedure to study renewal in laboratory rats after abstinence imposed by negative consequences (footshock punishment). The mechanisms of renewal of punished alcohol seeking are largely unknown. Here, we used the D1-family receptor antagonist SCH 23390 to examine the role of nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell and core dopamine in renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence. We trained alcohol-preferring "P rats" to self-administer 20% alcohol in Context A and subsequently suppressed alcohol taking via response-contingent footshock punishment in Context B. We tested the effects of systemic, NAc shell, or NAc core injections of SCH 23390 on renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence. We found that both systemic and NAc shell and core injections of SCH 23390 decreased renewal of punished alcohol seeking. Our results demonstrate a critical role of NAc dopamine in renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence. We discuss these results in reference to the brain mechanisms of renewal of alcohol seeking after extinction versus punishment.

Ecological momentary assessment in the investigation of craving and substance use in daily life: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Craving is viewed as a major determinant of relapse in persons with substance addiction, but this association remains poorly understood due to its time-limited nature and the biases associated with retrospective reporting. Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) offers new opportunities to examine both craving and substance use with strong ecological validity by collecting real-time data in daily life. This review examined all published studies using EMA to: (1) assess the link between craving and substance use; and (2) identify relevant moderators of craving among substance users.

METHODS

We searched PubMed and PsycInfo databases up to October 31, 2013.

RESULTS

Ninety-one studies were selected, involving mostly tobacco smokers (73%). A majority of studies (92%) reported a positive relationship between craving and substance use, concurrently and prospectively, and among users with different levels of use for both legal and illegal substances. Results suggest that craving is a stronger predictor of relapse episodes when assessed in close temporal proximity to substance use. EMA data also confirmed the influence of diverse within-person and between-person sources of variation in daily life craving reports.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides strong support for the link between craving and substance use, and underscores the importance of the timing of assessments.

Dopamine D3 receptors in the basolateral amygdala and the lateral habenula modulate cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking

Dopamine D3 receptors are implicated in cue-induced relapse to drug seeking. We have previously shown that systemic administration of a selective D3 antagonist reduces cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking in rats. The current study sought to investigate potential neural substrates mediating this effect. The D3 antagonist SB-277011-A (0.01-1 μg/0.5 μl/side) infused into the basolateral amygdala or the lateral habenula, but not the nucleus accumbens, significantly attenuated cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. Moreover, infusion of SB-277011-A (1 μg/0.5 μl/side) into the basolateral amygdala or lateral habenula had no effect on food self-administration. Together with the finding that systemic SB-277011-A had no effect on extinction responding, this suggests that the effects observed here were on reinstatement and cue seeking, and not due to nonspecific motor activation or contextual-modified residual responding. The further finding of binding of [(125)I]7-OH-PIPAT to D3 receptors in the lateral habenula and in the basolateral amygdala is consistent with an important role of D3 receptors in these areas in nicotine seeking. It was also found that systemic administration of the selective D2 antagonist L741626 decreased cue-induced reinstatement, consistent with a role of D2 and D3 receptors in modulating this behavior. The current study supports an important role for D3 receptors in the basolateral amygdala and lateral habenula in cue-induced reinstatement.

Prolonged withdrawal following cocaine self-administration increases resistance to punishment in a cocaine binge

Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive drug-taking behaviors and a high propensity to relapse following drug cessation. Drug craving and seeking can increase during a period of abstinence, but this phenomenon is not observed in drug-induced reinstatement models. To investigate the effect of withdrawal on cocaine relapse, rats were exposed to extended-access cocaine self-administration and subjected to either 1 or 30 d of withdrawal. When tested during 12 h unlimited access to cocaine (binge), the duration of the withdrawal did not influence cocaine intake. However, using a histamine punishment procedure that greatly suppresses drug-taking behavior, we demonstrate that longer periods of abstinence from cocaine induce a greater persistence in responding for drug in the face of negative consequences.

Incubation of methamphetamine and palatable food craving after punishment-induced abstinence

In a rat model of drug craving and relapse, cue-induced drug seeking progressively increases after withdrawal from methamphetamine and other drugs, a phenomenon termed 'incubation of drug craving'. However, current experimental procedures used to study incubation of drug craving do not incorporate negative consequences of drug use, which is a common factor promoting abstinence in humans. Here, we studied whether incubation of methamphetamine craving is observed after suppression of drug seeking by adverse consequences (punishment). We trained rats to self-administer methamphetamine or palatable food for 9 h per day for 14 days; reward delivery was paired with a tone-light cue. Subsequently, for one group within each reward type, 50% of the lever-presses were punished by mild footshock for 9-10 days, whereas for the other group lever-presses were not punished. Shock intensity was gradually increased over time. Next, we assessed cue-induced reward seeking in 1-h extinction sessions on withdrawal days 2 and 21. Response-contingent punishment suppressed extended-access methamphetamine or food self-administration; surprisingly, food-trained rats showed greater resistance to punishment than methamphetamine-trained rats. During the relapse tests, both punished and unpunished methamphetamine- and food-trained rats showed significantly higher cue-induced reward seeking on withdrawal day 21 than on day 2. These results demonstrate that incubation of both methamphetamine and food craving occur after punishment-induced suppression of methamphetamine or palatable food self-administration. Our procedure can be used to investigate mechanisms of relapse to drug and palatable food seeking under conditions that more closely approximate the human condition.

A critical role of lateral hypothalamus in context-induced relapse to alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence

In human alcoholics, abstinence is often self-imposed, despite alcohol availability, because of the negative consequences of excessive use. During abstinence, relapse is often triggered by exposure to contexts associated with alcohol use. We recently developed a rat model that captures some features of this human condition: exposure to the alcohol self-administration environment (context A), after punishment-imposed suppression of alcohol self-administration in a different environment (context B), provoked renewal of alcohol seeking in alcohol-preferring P rats. The mechanisms underlying context-induced renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence are unknown. Here, we studied the role of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and its forebrain projections in this effect. We first determined the effect of context-induced renewal of alcohol seeking on Fos (a neuronal activity marker) expression in LH. We next determined the effect of LH reversible inactivation by GABAA + GABAB receptor agonists (muscimol + baclofen) on this effect. Finally, we determined neuronal activation in brain areas projecting to LH during context-induced renewal tests by measuring double labeling of the retrograde tracer cholera toxin subunit B (CTb; injected in LH) with Fos. Context-induced renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence was associated with increased Fos expression in LH. Additionally, renewal was blocked by muscimol + baclofen injections into LH. Finally, double-labeling analysis of CTb + Fos showed that context-induced renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence was associated with selective activation of accumbens shell neurons projecting to LH. The results demonstrate an important role of LH in renewal of alcohol seeking after punishment-imposed abstinence and suggest a role of accumbens shell projections to LH in this form of relapse.

Drug abstinence: exploring animal models and behavioral treatment strategies

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE

An enormous amount of resources has been devoted to the development of pharmacotherapies for drug addiction, with relatively little or no long-term success reported. The current review argues that a successful drug addiction treatment program will likely be one that focuses on both the neural mechanisms and the environmental contingencies that mediate drug use. Further, because the neural mechanisms and environmental factors that support abstinence in humans are similar in laboratory animals, several animal models of abstinence and relapse have been developed. Thus, this review also compares the similarities in the mechanisms that lead to abstinence between animals and humans.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluate the construct and face validities of the behavioral strategies that help support human drug abstinence. Further, we crucially evaluate animal models by assessing their validity and utility in addressing human behavior that leads to long-term abstinence.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that the behavioral strategies with the greatest likelihood of supporting long-term abstinence are those that are carried out in drug addicts' natural setting(s) and while drug is readily available. Further, the behavioral strategies that may be most successful in supporting abstinence in humans are those that employ both positive consequences for abstinent related behavior and negative consequences for continued drug seeking or taking. Moreover, the animal models of abstinence and relapse that more closely represent the factors that support long-term abstinence in humans are those that limit their use of extinction or forced abstinence and present negative consequences for drug seeking and taking.

Dopamine D4 receptors in psychostimulant addiction

Since the cloning of the D4 receptor in the 1990s, interest has been building in the role of this receptor in drug addiction, given the importance of dopamine in addiction. Like the D3 receptor, the D4 receptor has limited distribution within the brain, suggesting it may have a unique role in drug abuse. However, compared to the D3 receptor, few studies have evaluated the importance of the D4 receptor. This may be due, in part, to the relative lack of compounds selective for the D4 receptor; the early studies were mainly conducted in mice lacking the D4 receptor. In this review, we summarize the literature on the structure and localization of the D4 receptor before reviewing the data from D4 knockout mice that used behavioral models relevant to the understanding of stimulant use. We also present evidence from more recent pharmacological studies using selective D4 agonists and antagonists and animal models of drug-seeking and drug-taking. The data summarized here suggest a role for D4 receptors in relapse to stimulant use. Therefore, treatments based on antagonism of the D4 receptor may be useful treatments for relapse to nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamine use.

The use of the reinstatement model to study relapse to palatable food seeking during dieting

Excessive consumption of unhealthy foods is a major public health problem. While many people attempt to control their food intake through dieting, many relapse to unhealthy eating habits within a few months. We have begun to study this clinical condition in rats by adapting the reinstatement model, which has been used extensively to study relapse to drug seeking. In our adaptation of the relapse model, reinstatement of palatable food seeking by exposure to food-pellet priming, food-associated cues, or stress is assessed in food-restricted (to mimic dieting) rats after operant food-pellet self-administration training and subsequent extinction of the food-reinforced responding. In this review, we first outline the clinical problem and discuss a recent study in which we assessed the predictive validity of the reinstatement model for studying relapse to food seeking during dieting by using the anorexigenic drug fenfluramine. Next, we summarize results from our initial studies on the role of several stress- and feeding-related peptides (corticotropin-releasing factor, hypocretin, melanin-concentrating hormone, peptide YY3-36) in reinstatement of palatable food seeking. We then present results from our studies on the role of dopamine and medial prefrontal cortex in stress-induced reinstatement of food seeking. We conclude by discussing potential clinical implications. We offer two main conclusions: (1) the food reinstatement model is a simple, reliable, and valid model to study mechanisms of relapse to palatable food seeking during dieting, and to identify medications to prevent this relapse; (2) mechanisms of relapse to food seeking are often dissociable from mechanisms of ongoing food intake. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'NIDA 40th Anniversary Issue'.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists as promising new medications for drug addiction: preclinical evidence

This review examines the growing literature on the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) in addiction. There are two subtypes of PPAR receptors that have been studied in addiction: PPAR-α and PPAR-γ. The role of each PPAR subtype in common models of addictive behavior, mainly pre-clinical models, is summarized. In particular, studies are reviewed that investigated the effects of PPAR-α agonists on relapse, sensitization, conditioned place preference, withdrawal and drug intake, and effects of PPAR-γ agonists on relapse, withdrawal and drug intake. Finally, studies that investigated the effects of PPAR agonists on neural pathways of addiction are reviewed. Taken together these preclinical data indicate that PPAR agonists are promising new medications for drug addiction treatment.

The reinstatement model of drug relapse: recent neurobiological findings, emerging research topics, and translational research

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE

Results from many clinical studies suggest that drug relapse and craving are often provoked by acute exposure to the self-administered drug or related drugs, drug-associated cues or contexts, or certain stressors. During the last two decades, this clinical scenario has been studied in laboratory animals by using the reinstatement model. In this model, reinstatement of drug seeking by drug priming, drug cues or contexts, or certain stressors is assessed following drug self-administration training and subsequent extinction of the drug-reinforced responding.

OBJECTIVE

In this review, we first summarize recent (2009-present) neurobiological findings from studies using the reinstatement model. We then discuss emerging research topics, including the impact of interfering with putative reconsolidation processes on cue- and context-induced reinstatement of drug seeking, and similarities and differences in mechanisms of reinstatement across drug classes. We conclude by discussing results from recent human studies that were inspired by results from rat studies using the reinstatement model.

CONCLUSIONS

Main conclusions from the studies reviewed highlight: (1) the ventral subiculum and lateral hypothalamus as emerging brain areas important for reinstatement of drug seeking, (2) the existence of differences in brain mechanisms controlling reinstatement of drug seeking across drug classes, (3) the utility of the reinstatement model for assessing the effect of reconsolidation-related manipulations on cue-induced drug seeking, and (4) the encouraging pharmacological concordance between results from rat studies using the reinstatement model and human laboratory studies on cue- and stress-induced drug craving.

The Potent Effect of Environmental Context on Relapse to Alcohol-Seeking After Extinction

Environments in which the pharmacological effects of alcohol have been experienced become potent triggers for relapse in abstinent humans. Animal models developed to study the effect of environmental contexts on relapse to alcohol-seeking behavior demonstrate that alcohol-seeking is renewed by exposure to an alcohol-associated context, following the extinction of alcohol-seeking in a different context. Hence, contexts in which alcohol conditioning and extinction learning occur can be critical determinants for whether or not alcohol-seeking behavior is observed. This review summarizes preclinical research to date examining the role of alcohol contexts on the reinstatement of extinguished responding for alcohol. Behavioral studies have elucidated factors that are important for eliciting context-dependent relapse, and have uncovered novel interactions between alcohol-seeking driven by discrete alcohol cues in different contexts. Neuropharmacological studies provide substantial evidence for a role of dopaminergic systems in context-dependent reinstatement, and growing support for opioidergic mechanisms as well. Several key limbic brain regions have been identified in the modulation of alcohol-seeking by context, supporting a proposed neural circuit that includes the hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, basolateral amygdala, lateral hypothalamus, and the paraventricular thalamus.