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Engin E. GABA A receptor subtypes and benzodiazepine use, misuse, and abuse. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:1060949. [PMID: 36713896 PMCID: PMC9879605 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1060949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Benzodiazepines have been in use for over half a century. While they remain highly prescribed, their unfavorable side-effect profile and abuse liability motivated a search for alternatives. Most of these efforts focused on the development of benzodiazepine-like drugs that are selective for specific GABAA receptor subtypes. While there is ample evidence that subtype-selective GABAA receptor ligands have great potential for providing symptom relief without typical benzodiazepine side-effects, it is less clear whether subtype-selective targeting strategies can also reduce misuse and abuse potential. This review focuses on the three benzodiazepine properties that are relevant to the DSM-5-TR criteria for Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Use Disorder, namely, reinforcing properties of benzodiazepines, maladaptive behaviors related to benzodiazepine use, and benzodiazepine tolerance and dependence. We review existing evidence regarding the involvement of different GABAA receptor subtypes in each of these areas. The reviewed studies suggest that α1-containing GABAA receptors play an integral role in benzodiazepine-induced plasticity in reward-related brain areas and might be involved in the development of tolerance and dependence to benzodiazepines. However, a systematic comparison of the contributions of all benzodiazepine-sensitive GABAA receptors to these processes, a mechanistic understanding of how the positive modulation of each receptor subtype might contribute to the brain mechanisms underlying each of these processes, and a definitive answer to the question of whether specific chronic modulation of any given subtype would result in some or all of the benzodiazepine effects are currently lacking from the literature. Moreover, how non-selective benzodiazepines might lead to the maladaptive behaviors listed in DSM and how different GABAA receptor subtypes might be involved in the development of these behaviors remains unexplored. Considering the increasing burden of benzodiazepine abuse, the common practice of benzodiazepine misuse that leads to severe dependence, and the current efforts to generate side-effect free benzodiazepine alternatives, there is an urgent need for systematic, mechanistic research that provides a better understanding of the brain mechanisms of benzodiazepine misuse and abuse, including the involvement of specific GABAA receptor subtypes in these processes, to establish an informed foundation for preclinical and clinical efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Engin
- Stress Neurobiology Laboratory, Division of Basic Neuroscience, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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Baitz HA, Jones PW, Campbell DA, Jones AA, Gicas KM, Giesbrecht CJ, Loken Thornton W, Barone CC, Wang NY, Panenka WJ, Lang DJ, Vila-Rodriguez F, Leonova O, Barr AM, Procyshyn RM, Buchanan T, Rauscher A, MacEwan GW, Honer WG, Thornton AE. Component Processes of Decision Making in a Community Sample of Precariously Housed Persons: Associations With Learning and Memory, and Health-Risk Behaviors. Front Psychol 2021; 12:571423. [PMID: 34276459 PMCID: PMC8285095 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.571423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) is a widely used measure of decision making, but its value in signifying behaviors associated with adverse, "real-world" consequences has not been consistently demonstrated in persons who are precariously housed or homeless. Studies evaluating the ecological validity of the IGT have primarily relied on traditional IGT scores. However, computational modeling derives underlying component processes of the IGT, which capture specific facets of decision making that may be more closely related to engagement in behaviors associated with negative consequences. This study employed the Prospect Valence Learning (PVL) model to decompose IGT performance into component processes in 294 precariously housed community residents with substance use disorders. Results revealed a predominant focus on gains and a lack of sensitivity to losses in these vulnerable community residents. Hypothesized associations were not detected between component processes and self-reported health-risk behaviors. These findings provide insight into the processes underlying decision making in a vulnerable substance-using population and highlight the challenge of linking specific decision making processes to "real-world" behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather A. Baitz
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Paul W. Jones
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - David A. Campbell
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Andrea A. Jones
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kristina M. Gicas
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Chantelle J. Giesbrecht
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | | | - Nena Y. Wang
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - William J. Panenka
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Donna J. Lang
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Radiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Olga Leonova
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alasdair M. Barr
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Ric M. Procyshyn
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Tari Buchanan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alexander Rauscher
- Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - G. William MacEwan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - William G. Honer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Allen E. Thornton
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services, Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Groft ML, Normann MC, Nicklas PR, Jagielo-Miller JE, McLaughlin PJ. Biphasic effects of 5-HT1A agonism on impulsive responding are dissociable from effects on anxiety in the variable consecutive number task. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2019; 392:1455-1464. [DOI: 10.1007/s00210-019-01684-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Tsai JK, Yen CN, Chen CS, Hwang TJ, Chen ST, Chen TT, Ko CH, Su PW, Chang YP, Lin JJ, Yen CF. Prevalence and clinical correlates of flunitrazepam-related complex sleep behaviors. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2017; 71:198-203. [PMID: 27778423 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM Complex sleep behaviors (CSB) are often associated with the use of hypnotic drugs. This study investigated the prevalence and correlates of CSB among psychiatric patients who were given flunitrazepam. METHODS From June 2011 to May 2012, a total of 268 psychiatric outpatients who had received flunitrazepam for at least 3 months were enrolled. Data on occurrence of CSB, demographic characteristics, flunitrazepam dosage and duration of use, psychiatric diagnoses, physical illnesses, and alcohol use were collected. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the clinical correlates of CSB. RESULTS Sixty-six participants (24.6%) reported experiencing CSB. Logistic regression analysis showed that a high dosage (>2 mg/day) of flunitrazepam (odds ratio [OR] = 1.941, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.090-3.455, P = 0.024) and alcohol use (OR = 1.948, 95%CI = 1.023-3.709, P = 0.042) were significantly associated with the occurrence of CSB. Sex, age, duration of flunitrazepam use, psychiatric diagnoses, and physical illnesses were not significantly associated with the occurrence of CSB. CONCLUSION CSB among flunitrazepam users should be monitored routinely, especially among those receiving a high dosage who also consume alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Kang Tsai
- Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Armed Forces General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Nan Yen
- Department of Psychiatry, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Sheng Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, and Graduate Institute of Medicine, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tzung-Jeng Hwang
- Department of Psychiatry, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan.,Neurobiology and Cognitive Science Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shao-Tsu Chen
- School of Medicine, Buddhist Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.,Department of Psychiatry, Buddhist Tzu Chi General Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Ting Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Yun-Lin Branch, National Taiwan University Hospital, Yunlin, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hung Ko
- Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, and Graduate Institute of Medicine, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Municipal Hsiao-Kang Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Po-Wen Su
- Department of Psychiatry, Puzi Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ping Chang
- Department of Psychiatry, Chi-Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jin-Jia Lin
- Department of Psychiatry, Chi-Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Fang Yen
- Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, and Graduate Institute of Medicine, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Abstract
Benzodiazepines have been in clinical use since the 1960s. Benzodiazepines act through allosteric modulation of the GABAA receptor to enhance the activity of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, resulting in a slowing of neurotransmission and sedative and anxiolytic effects. Initially benzodiazepines were thought to have low dependence liability, though over time there has been increasing evidence of benzodiazepine dependence. Benzodiazepines are commonly used to treat anxiety and insomnia, though increasingly they are considered second line treatments for most indications. Concerns about the effects of benzodiazepines on cognition, falls and their implication in opioid related mortality have emerged. Few pharmacological treatments for benzodiazepine dependence have been shown to be effective with gradual taper the most common treatment strategy for benzodiazepine dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Nielsen
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, 22-32 King Street, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia. .,South East Sydney Local Health District (SESLHD) Drug and Alcohol Services, 591-623 S Dowling St, Surry Hills, NSW, 2010, Australia.
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Dong G, Lin X, Zhou H, Du X. Decision-making after continuous wins or losses in a randomized guessing task: implications for how the prior selection results affect subsequent decision-making. Behav Brain Funct 2014; 10:11. [PMID: 24708897 PMCID: PMC4234378 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-10-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human decision-making is often affected by prior selections and their outcomes, even in situations where decisions are independent and outcomes are unpredictable. Methods In this study, we created a task that simulated real-life non-strategic gambling to examine the effect of prior outcomes on subsequent decisions in a group of male college students. Results Behavioral performance showed that participants needed more time to react after continuous losses (LOSS) than continuous wins (WIN) and discontinuous outcomes (CONTROL). In addition, participants were more likely to repeat their selections in both WIN and LOSS conditions. Functional MRI data revealed that decisions in WINs were associated with increased activation in the mesolimbic pathway, but decreased activation in the inferior frontal gyrus relative to LOSS. Increased prefrontal cortical activation was observed during LOSS relative to WIN and CONTROL conditions. Conclusion Taken together, the behavioral and neuroimaging findings suggest that participants tended to repeat previous selections during LOSS trials, a pattern resembling the gambler’s fallacy. However, during WIN trials, participants tended to follow their previous lucky decisions, like the ‘hot hand’ fallacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangheng Dong
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, Zhejiang, P,R, China.
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Almeida IVD, Domingues G, Soares LC, Düsman E, Vicentini VEP. Evaluation of cytotoxicity and mutagenicity of the benzodiazepine flunitrazepam in vitro and in vivo. BRAZ J PHARM SCI 2014. [DOI: 10.1590/s1984-82502014000200003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Flunitrazepam (FNZ) is a sedative benzodiazepine prescribed for the short-term treatment of insomnia. However, there are concerns regarding possible carcinogenic or genotoxic effects of this medicine. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxic, clastogenic and aneugenic effects of FNZ in hepatoma cells from Rattus norvegicus (HTC) in vitro and in bone marrow cells of Wistar rats in vivo. These effects were examined in vitro following treatment with 0.2, 1.0, 5.0 or 10 μg/mL FNZ using a micronucleus test with a cytokinesis block or in vivo using a chromosomal aberration test following treatment with 7, 15 or 30 μg/mL/kg body weight. The results showed that the benzodiazepine concentrations tested were not cytotoxic, aneugenic or clastogenic. However, considering the adverse effects of using this benzodiazepine, more studies are required.
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Burghart DR, Glimcher PW, Lazzaro SC. An expected utility maximizer walks into a bar…. JOURNAL OF RISK AND UNCERTAINTY 2013; 46:10.1007/s11166-013-9167-7. [PMID: 24244072 PMCID: PMC3827508 DOI: 10.1007/s11166-013-9167-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We conducted field experiments at a bar to test whether blood alcohol concentration (BAC) correlates with violations of the generalized axiom of revealed preference (GARP) and the independence axiom. We found that individuals with BACs well above the legal limit for driving adhere to GARP and independence at rates similar to those who are sober. This finding led to the fielding of a third experiment to explore how risk preferences might vary as a function of BAC. We found gender-specific effects: Men did not exhibit variations in risk preferences across BACs. In contrast, women were more risk averse than men at low BACs but exhibited increasing tolerance towards risks as BAC increased. Based on our estimates, men and women's risk preferences are predicted to be identical at BACs nearly twice the legal limit for driving. We discuss the implications for policy-makers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R. Burghart
- Department of Economics, University of Zürich, Blümlisalpstrasse 10, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Paul W. Glimcher
- Center for Neuroeconomics, New York University, 4 Washington Place, Room 809, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Stephanie C. Lazzaro
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H0AP, UK
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9
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Kiss B, Bogdan C, Pop A, Loghin F. A rapid UPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of flunitrazepam, 7-aminoflunitrazepam, methadone and EDDP in human, rat and rabbit plasma. Talanta 2012; 99:649-59. [PMID: 22967607 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.06.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A simple, high-throughput, sensitive LC-ESI-MS/MS method is presented for the simultaneous determination of methadone (MET), flunitrazepam (FNZ) and their major metabolites, EDDP (2-ethilidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidone) and 7-aminoflunitrazepam (7-AFNZ), respectively, in human, rat and rabbit plasma. The isolation of the selected compounds involved a liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate at a basic pH. Good chromatographic separation was achieved on a HSS T3 column (1.8 μm particle size), with a 3 min gradient elution using a mixture of acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid (solvent A) and 5mM ammonium acetate (solvent B) as the mobile phase. The tandem mass spectrometric detection was performed in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode with ionization of the analytes in positive mode. The assay was fully validated according to current acceptance criteria for bioanalytical methods validation. It was proved to be linear in the range of 0.5-250 ng/mL, with adequate accuracy and precision over this range. Based on accuracy and CV% values the LOQ and ULOQ values were set at 0.509 ng/mL and 2036 ng/mL for MET, 0.520 ng/mL and 2080 ng/mL for EDDP, 0.524 ng/mL and 2096 ng/mL for FNZ and 0.528 ng/mL and 2114 ng/mL for 7-AFNZ, respectively. The method was tested for potential matrix effects, without observing significant ion suppression. The investigated compounds stability was examined in plasma at room temperature and after three freeze-thaw cycles and in the final extract when maintained at 4 °C in the autosampler. Potential stability issues were observed only for FNZ at room temperature. The method was successfully applied to quantify the selected compounds in human, rat and rabbit plasma samples, after exposure to FNZ or simultaneous exposure to FNZ and MET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Béla Kiss
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iuliu Hatieganu, no. 6 Pasteur, RO-400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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Eppolito AK, France CP, Gerak LR. Effects of acute and chronic flunitrazepam on delay discounting in pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav 2011; 95:163-74. [PMID: 21541119 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2011.95-163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 11/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Delay to delivery of a reinforcer can decrease responding for that reinforcer and increase responding for smaller reinforcers that are available concurrently and delivered without delay; acute administration of drugs can alter responding for large, delayed reinforcers, although the impact of chronic treatment on delay discounting is not well understood. In this experiment, the effects of repeated administration of the benzodiazepine flunitrazepam were studied in 6 pigeons responding on one key to receive food that was delivered immediately and on a second key to receive a larger amount of food that was delivered following delays which increased across a single session. Pigeons responded predominantly for the large reinforcer when there were no delays and when delays were short; however, as delays increased, responding for the large reinforcer decreased. Acutely, flunitrazepam (0.32, 1.0 and 3.2 mg/kg) dose-dependently increased responding for the large reinforcer, shifting the discounting curve rightward and upward. Repeated administration of flunitrazepam (0.32, 1.0 and 3.2 mg/kg, each for six sessions, separated by one session during which vehicle was administered) did not markedly alter its effects on responding for the large reinforcer, indicating that the development of tolerance to this effect of flunitrazepam is modest under these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy K Eppolito
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, Mail Code 7764, San Antonio, Texas 78229, USA
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GABAergic modulation of human social interaction in a prisoner's dilemma model by acute administration of alprazolam. Behav Pharmacol 2011; 20:657-61. [PMID: 19667972 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e32832ec62b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent work in neuroeconomics has used game theory paradigms to examine neural systems that subserve human social interaction and decision making. Attempts to modify social interaction through pharmacological manipulation have been less common. Here we show dose-dependent modification of human social behavior in a prisoner's dilemma model after acute administration of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-A modulating benzodiazepine alprazolam. Nine healthy adults received doses of placebo, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg alprazolam in a counterbalanced within-subject design, while completing multiple test blocks per day on an iterated prisoner's dilemma game. During test blocks in which peak subjective effects of alprazolam were reported, cooperative choices were significantly decreased as a function of dose. Consistent with previous reports showing that high acute doses of GABA-modulating drugs are associated with violence and other antisocial behavior, our data suggest that at sufficiently high doses, alprazolam can decrease cooperation. These behavioral changes may be facilitated by changes in inhibitory control facilitated by GABA. Game theory paradigms may prove useful in behavioral pharmacology studies seeking to measure social interaction, and may help inform the emerging field of neuroeconomics.
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Rogers RD. The roles of dopamine and serotonin in decision making: evidence from pharmacological experiments in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011; 36:114-32. [PMID: 20881944 PMCID: PMC3055502 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2010.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2010] [Revised: 08/16/2010] [Accepted: 08/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Neurophysiological experiments in primates, alongside neuropsychological and functional magnetic resonance investigations in humans, have significantly enhanced our understanding of the neural architecture of decision making. In this review, I consider the more limited database of experiments that have investigated how dopamine and serotonin activity influences the choices of human adults. These include those experiments that have involved the administration of drugs to healthy controls, experiments that have tested genotypic influences upon dopamine and serotonin function, and, finally, some of those experiments that have examined the effects of drugs on the decision making of clinical samples. Pharmacological experiments in humans are few in number and face considerable methodological challenges in terms of drug specificity, uncertainties about pre- vs post-synaptic modes of action, and interactions with baseline cognitive performance. However, the available data are broadly consistent with current computational models of dopamine function in decision making and highlight the dissociable roles of dopamine receptor systems in the learning about outcomes that underpins value-based decision making. Moreover, genotypic influences on (interacting) prefrontal and striatal dopamine activity are associated with changes in choice behavior that might be relevant to understanding exploratory behaviors and vulnerability to addictive disorders. Manipulations of serotonin in laboratory tests of decision making in human participants have provided less consistent results, but the information gathered to date indicates a role for serotonin in learning about bad decision outcomes, non-normative aspects of risk-seeking behavior, and social choices involving affiliation and notions of fairness. Finally, I suggest that the role played by serotonin in the regulation of cognitive biases, and representation of context in learning, point toward a role in the cortically mediated cognitive appraisal of reinforcers when selecting between actions, potentially accounting for its influence upon the processing salient aversive outcomes and social choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert D Rogers
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK.
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LinWu SW, Wang AHJ, Peng FC. Flavin-containing reductase: new perspective on the detoxification of nitrobenzodiazepine. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2010; 6:967-81. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2010.482928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Linwu SW, Syu CJ, Chen YL, Wang AHJ, Peng FC. Characterization of Escherichia coli nitroreductase NfsB in the metabolism of nitrobenzodiazepines. Biochem Pharmacol 2009; 78:96-103. [PMID: 19447228 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 03/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Nitrobenzodiazepine (NBDZ) is a sedative-hypnotic drug used in the treatment of anxiety and sleep problems. Overdose of NBDZ may cause severe neurological effects, especially for people in drug abuse or addiction. In the present study, we investigated NBDZ nitroreduction in rat enteric contents and characterized the role of enterobacterial nitroreductase in the reductive pathway. Nitroreduction of flunitrazepam (FZ) was studied in the microsomal membrane fractions of rat liver, jejunum and jejunal microflora using HPLC analysis. In the jejunal microflora, FZ was demonstrated to be significantly reduced to its amino derivative under anaerobic condition. Escherichia coli type I nitroreductase NfsB (EC 1.5.1.34) was found in rat jejunal microflora via PCR technique and Western blotting. The participation of NfsB in FZ nitroreduction was demonstrated from inhibition studies. Kinetic study of the purified recombinant NfsB indicated that nitroreduction of FZ, nitrazepam (NZ) and clonazepam (CZ) are mediated by NfsB, where CZ shows lower k(cat)/K(M) ratio than that of the other two. Finally, two other nitroreductases E. cloacae NR (EC 1.6.99.7) and S. typhimurium Cnr were also found to be responsible for FZ nitroreduction. These results provide that the reduction of NBDZ in normal flora is catalyzed by type I nitroreductase NfsB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiuan-Woei Linwu
- Chemical Biology and Molecular Biophysics Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
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Poisnel G, Dhilly M, Boisselier RL, Barre L, Debruyne D. Comparison of Five Benzodiazepine-Receptor Agonists on Buprenorphine-Induced μ-Opioid Receptor Regulation. J Pharmacol Sci 2009; 110:36-46. [DOI: 10.1254/jphs.08249fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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