1
|
Molla H, Keedy S, DeBrosse J, de Wit H. Methamphetamine enhances neural activation during anticipation of loss in the monetary incentive delay task. Cereb Cortex Commun 2023; 4:tgad014. [PMID: 37565072 PMCID: PMC10412021 DOI: 10.1093/texcom/tgad014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Stimulants like methamphetamine (MA) affect motivated behaviors via actions on circuits mediating mood, attention, and reward. Few studies examined the effects of single doses of stimulants on reward circuits during anticipation and receipt of rewards and losses. Here, we examined the effects of MA (20 mg) or placebo in a within-subject, double-blind study with healthy adults (n = 43). During 2 fMRI sessions, participants completed the monetary incentive delay task. Primary outcome measures were BOLD activation in selected regions of interest during anticipation and receipt of monetary rewards and losses. Secondary analyses included behavioral measures, whole brain analysis, and arterial spin labeling. MA produced its expected behavioral effects and increased neural activation in the ventral striatum and anterior insula during anticipation of monetary loss versus non-loss. MA did not affect activation during anticipation of gains, or during receipt of wins or losses. MA significantly reduced cerebral blood flow in the striatum and insula. The present finding that a stimulant enhances the responses of striatal and insular regions to upcoming loss suggests that this system may be sensitive to the salience of upcoming events. The finding adds to a complex body of evidence regarding the effects of stimulant drugs on neural processes during motivated behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Molla
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Sarah Keedy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Joseph DeBrosse
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Harriet de Wit
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hama T, Koeda M, Ikeda Y, Tateno A, Kawara T, Suzuki H, Okubo Y. Modafinil Decreased Thalamic Activation in Auditory Emotional Processing: A Randomized Controlled Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. J NIPPON MED SCH 2021; 88:485-495. [PMID: 33692297 DOI: 10.1272/jnms.jnms.2021_88-607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Modafinil improves wakefulness and attention, is approved in Japan for treatment of narcolepsy, and was reported to be effective for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. However, it was reported to induce emotional instability, including mania, depression, and suicidal ideation. Such side effects may be related to changes in cognitive behavior caused by the effects of modafinil on emotional recognition. However, the effects of modafinil on the neural basis of emotional processing have not been fully verified. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the effects of modafinil on the neural basis of auditory emotional processing. METHODS This study adopted a placebo-controlled within-subject crossover design. Data from 14 participants were analyzed. The effects of modafinil on cerebral activation and task performance during an emotional judgement task were analyzed. RESULTS Task accuracy decreased significantly and response time of emotional judgement was significantly delayed by modafinil, as compared with placebo. Right thalamic activation in auditory emotional processing was significantly less in the modafinil condition than in the placebo condition. In addition, reduction of right thalamic activation by modafinil was positively correlated with accuracy of emotional judgement. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that modafinil acts on the right thalamus and changes behavior and brain function associated with auditory emotional processing. These results indicate that modafinil might change emotional recognition by reducing emotional activation related to social communication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Hama
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School.,Faculty of Health Science Technology, Bunkyo Gakuin University.,Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ehime Prefectural University of Health Sciences
| | - Michihiko Koeda
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| | - Yumiko Ikeda
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| | - Amane Tateno
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| | - Tokuhiro Kawara
- Faculty of Health Science Technology, Bunkyo Gakuin University
| | - Hidenori Suzuki
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| | - Yoshiro Okubo
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Van Puyvelde M, Van Cutsem J, Lacroix E, Pattyn N. A State-of-the-Art Review on the Use of Modafinil as A Performance-enhancing Drug in the Context of Military Operationality. Mil Med 2021; 187:52-64. [PMID: 34632515 DOI: 10.1093/milmed/usab398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Modafinil is an eugeroic drug that has been examined to maintain or recover wakefulness, alertness, and cognitive performance when sleep deprived. In a nonmilitary context, the use of modafinil as a nootropic or smart drug, i.e., to improve cognitive performance without being sleep deprived, increases. Although cognitive performance is receiving more explicit attention in a military context, research into the impact of modafinil as a smart drug in function of operationality is lacking. Therefore, the current review aimed at presenting a current state-of-the-art and research agenda on modafinil as a smart drug. Beside the question whether modafinil has an effect or not on cognitive performance, we examined four research questions based on the knowledge on modafinil in sleep-deprived subjects: (1) Is there a difference between the effect of modafinil as a smart drug when administered in repeated doses versus one single dose?; (2) Is the effect of modafinil as a smart drug dose-dependent?; (3) Are there individual-related and/or task-related impact factors?; and (4) What are the reported mental and/or somatic side effects of modafinil as a smart drug? METHOD We conducted a systematic search of the literature in the databases PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, using the search terms "Modafinil" and "Cognitive enhance*" in combination with specific terms related to the research questions. The inclusion criteria were studies on healthy human subjects with quantifiable cognitive outcome based on cognitive tasks. RESULTS We found no literature on the impact of a repeated intake of modafinil as a smart drug, although, in users, intake occurs on a regular basis. Moreover, although modafinil was initially said to comprise no risk for abuse, there are now indications that modafinil works on the same neurobiological mechanisms as other addictive stimulants. There is also no thorough research into a potential risk for overconfidence, whereas this risk was identified in sleep-deprived subjects. Furthermore, eventual enhancing effects were beneficial only in persons with an initial lower performance level and/or performing more difficult tasks and modafinil has an adverse effect when used under time pressure and may negatively impact physical performance. Finally, time-on-task may interact with the dose taken. DISCUSSION The use of modafinil as a smart drug should be examined in function of different military profiles considering their individual performance level and the task characteristics in terms of cognitive demands, physical demands, and sleep availability. It is not yet clear to what extent an improvement in one component (e.g., cognitive performance) may negatively affect another component (e.g., physical performance). Moreover, potential risks for abuse and overconfidence in both regular and occasional intake should be thoroughly investigated to depict the trade-off between user benefits and unwanted side effects. We identified that there is a current risk to the field, as this trade-off has been deemed acceptable for sleep-deprived subjects (considering the risk of sleep deprivation to performance) but this reasoning cannot and should not be readily transposed to non-sleep-deprived individuals. We thus conclude against the use of modafinil as a cognitive enhancer in military contexts that do not involve sleep deprivation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martine Van Puyvelde
- VIPER Research Unit, Department of LIFE, Royal Military Academy, Brussels 1000, Belgium.,Brain, Body and Cognition, Department of Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels 1050, Belgium.,Clinical & Lifespan Psychology, Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels 1050, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Van Cutsem
- VIPER Research Unit, Department of LIFE, Royal Military Academy, Brussels 1000, Belgium.,MFYS-BLITS, Department of Human Physiology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels 1050, Belgium
| | - Emilie Lacroix
- VIPER Research Unit, Department of LIFE, Royal Military Academy, Brussels 1000, Belgium
| | - Nathalie Pattyn
- VIPER Research Unit, Department of LIFE, Royal Military Academy, Brussels 1000, Belgium.,MFYS-BLITS, Department of Human Physiology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels 1050, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Jauhar S, Fortea L, Solanes A, Albajes-Eizagirre A, McKenna PJ, Radua J. Brain activations associated with anticipation and delivery of monetary reward: A systematic review and meta-analysis of fMRI studies. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255292. [PMID: 34351957 PMCID: PMC8341642 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While multiple studies have examined the brain functional correlates of reward, meta-analyses have either focused on studies using the monetary incentive delay (MID) task, or have adopted a broad strategy, combining data from studies using both monetary and non-monetary reward, as probed using a wide range of tasks. OBJECTIVE To meta-analyze fMRI studies that used monetary reward and in which there was a definable cue-reward contingency. Studies were limited to those using monetary reward in order to avoid potential heterogeneity from use of other rewards, especially social rewards. Studies using gambling or delay discounting tasks were excluded on the grounds that reward anticipation is not easily quantifiable. STUDY ELIGIBILITY English-language fMRI studies (i) that reported fMRI findings on healthy adults; (ii) that used monetary reward; and (iii) in which a cue that was predictive of reward was compared to a no win (or lesser win) condition. Only voxel-based studies were included; those where brain coverage was incomplete were excluded. DATA SOURCES Ovid, Medline and PsycInfo, from 2000 to 2020, plus checking of review articles and meta-analyses. DATA SYNTHESIS Data were pooled using Seed-based d Mapping with Permutation of Subject Images (SDM-PSI). Heterogeneity among studies was examined using the I2 statistic. Publication bias was examined using funnel plots and statistical examination of asymmetries. Moderator variables including whether the task was pre-learnt, sex distribution, amount of money won and width of smoothing kernel were examined. RESULTS Pooled data from 45 studies of reward anticipation revealed activations in the ventral striatum, the middle cingulate cortex/supplementary motor area and the insula. Pooled data from 28 studies of reward delivery again revealed ventral striatal activation, plus cortical activations in the anterior and posterior cingulate cortex. There was relatively little evidence of publication bias. Among moderating variables, only whether the task was pre-learnt exerted an influence. CONCLUSIONS According to this meta-analysis monetary reward anticipation and delivery both activate the ventral but not the dorsal striatum, and are associated with different patterns of cortical activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S. Jauhar
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, United Kingdom
| | - L. Fortea
- Imaging of Mood- and Anxiety-Related Disorders (IMARD) group, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - A. Solanes
- Imaging of Mood- and Anxiety-Related Disorders (IMARD) group, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- FIDMAG, Germanes Hospitalàries Research foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Antonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - A. Albajes-Eizagirre
- Imaging of Mood- and Anxiety-Related Disorders (IMARD) group, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- FIDMAG, Germanes Hospitalàries Research foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - P. J. McKenna
- Imaging of Mood- and Anxiety-Related Disorders (IMARD) group, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - J. Radua
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, United Kingdom
- Imaging of Mood- and Anxiety-Related Disorders (IMARD) group, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- FIDMAG, Germanes Hospitalàries Research foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain
- Center for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Using pharmacological manipulations to study the role of dopamine in human reward functioning: A review of studies in healthy adults. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 120:123-158. [PMID: 33202256 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) plays a key role in reward processing and is implicated in psychological disorders such as depression, substance use, and schizophrenia. The role of DA in reward processing is an area of highly active research. One approach to this question is drug challenge studies with drugs known to alter DA function. These studies provide good experimental control and can be performed in parallel in laboratory animals and humans. This review aimed to summarize results of studies using pharmacological manipulations of DA in healthy adults. 'Reward' is a complex process, so we separated 'phases' of reward, including anticipation, evaluation of cost and benefits of upcoming reward, execution of actions to obtain reward, pleasure in response to receiving a reward, and reward learning. Results indicated that i) DAergic drugs have different effects on different phases of reward; ii) the relationship between DA and reward functioning appears unlikely to be linear; iii) our ability to detect the effects of DAergic drugs varies depending on whether subjective, behavioral, imaging measures are used.
Collapse
|
6
|
Bupropion increases activation in nucleus accumbens during anticipation of monetary reward. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:3655-3665. [PMID: 31342097 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05337-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Bupropion is used for major depressive disorder, smoking cessation aid, and obesity. It blocks reuptake of dopamine and noradrenaline and antagonizes nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Animal studies showed that bupropion enhanced rewarding effects. In addition, bupropion has the potential to treat patients with reward processing dysfunction. However, neural substrates underlying the bupropion effects on reward function in human subjects are not fully understood. OBJECTIVES We investigated single-dose administration of bupropion on neural response of reward anticipation in healthy subjects using a monetary incentive delay (MID) task by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), especially focusing on nucleus accumbens (NAc) activity to non-drug reward stimuli under bupropion treatment. METHODS We used a randomized placebo-controlled within-subject crossover design. Fifteen healthy adults participated in two series of an fMRI study, taking either placebo or bupropion. The participants performed the MID task during the fMRI scanning. The effects of bupropion on behavioral performance and blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal in NAc during anticipation of monetary gain were analyzed. RESULTS We found that bupropion significantly increased BOLD responses in NAc during monetary reward anticipation. The increased BOLD responses in NAc were observed with both low and high reward incentive cues. There was no significant difference between placebo and bupropion in behavioral performance. CONCLUSIONS Our findings provide support for the notion that bupropion enhances non-drug rewarding effects, suggesting a possible mechanism underlying therapeutic effects for patients with motivational deficit.
Collapse
|
7
|
Moral decision making under modafinil: a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover fMRI study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:2747-2759. [PMID: 31037409 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05250-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Modafinil is increasingly used by healthy humans as a neuroenhancer in order to improve cognitive functioning. Research on the effects of modafinil on cognition yielded most consistent findings for complex tasks relying on the prefrontal cortex (PFC). OBJECTIVES The present randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover study aimed to investigate the effect of a single dose of modafinil (200 mg) on everyday moral decision making and its neural correlates, which have been linked to the ventro- and dorsomedial PFC. METHODS Healthy male study participants were presented with short stories describing everyday moral or neutral dilemmas. Each moral dilemma required a decision between a personal desire and a moral standard, while the neutral dilemmas required decisions between two personal desires. The participants underwent this task twice, once under the influence of modafinil and once under placebo. Brain activity associated with the processing of the dilemmas was assessed by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS For the processing of moral vs. neutral dilemmas, activations were found in a network of brain regions linked to social cognitive processes including, among others, the bilateral medial PFC, the insula, and the precuneus. Modafinil was found to increase the number of moral decisions and had no effect on brain activity associated with dilemma processing. Exploratory analyses revealed reduced response-locked activity in the dorsomedial PFC for moral compared to neutral dilemmas under modafinil, but not under placebo. CONCLUSIONS The results are discussed in terms of altered predictions of others' emotional states under modafinil, possibly due to higher processing efficiency.
Collapse
|
8
|
Cayanan EA, Bartlett DJ, Chapman JL, Hoyos C, Phillips CL, Grunstein RR. A review of psychosocial factors and personality in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir Rev 2019; 28:28/152/190005. [DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0005-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is primarily determined by adherence to the selected intervention. The most common treatment pathways are mechanical devices such as continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or a mandibular advancement device, often combined with weight loss therapy. Weight reduction is usually an adjunct therapy but may be used as a secondary treatment in mild-to-moderate OSA when mechanical treatments cannot be tolerated. To enhance the uptake and adherence to treatment, clinicians may assess patient's personality profiles and psychological readiness. There is a paucity of evidence related to these aspects of patient care and this article outlines the current research in relation to patient presentation, treatment uptake and barriers, and methods to enhance treatment adherence.This article disseminates personality traits observed in patients with OSA and identifies vulnerable groups who may require additional support to increase treatment adherence. It summarises the current evidence for treatment barriers in patients with OSA. Low self-efficacy in relation to CPAP and weight loss adherence will be explored as well as the potential to predict treatment responders and enhance therapeutic uptake and adherence. Extending personality traits into research and clinical practice could potentially result in more successful CPAP therapy and weight loss treatment outcomes.
Collapse
|
9
|
Gu R, Huang W, Camilleri J, Xu P, Wei P, Eickhoff SB, Feng C. Love is analogous to money in human brain: Coordinate-based and functional connectivity meta-analyses of social and monetary reward anticipation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 100:108-128. [PMID: 30807783 PMCID: PMC7250476 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Both social and material rewards play a crucial role in daily life and function as strong incentives for various goal-directed behaviors. However, it remains unclear whether the incentive effects of social and material reward are supported by common or distinct neural circuits. Here, we have addressed this issue by quantitatively synthesizing and comparing neural signatures underlying social (21 contrasts, 207 foci, 696 subjects) and monetary (94 contrasts, 1083 foci, 2060 subjects) reward anticipation. We demonstrated that social and monetary reward anticipation engaged a common neural circuit consisting of the ventral tegmental area, ventral striatum, anterior insula, and supplementary motor area, which are intensively connected during both task and resting states. Functional decoding findings indicate that this generic neural pathway mediates positive value, motivational relevance, and action preparation during reward anticipation, which together motivate individuals to prepare well for the response to the upcoming target. Our findings support the common neural currency hypothesis by providing the first meta-analytic evidence to quantitatively show the common involvement of brain regions in both social and material reward anticipation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruolei Gu
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenhao Huang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition, and School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Julia Camilleri
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany; Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Brain & Behaviour (INM-7), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Pengfei Xu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Affective and Social Neuroscience, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China; Center for Emotion and Brain, Shenzhen Institute of Neuroscience, Shenzhen, China; Department of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ping Wei
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition, and School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.
| | - Simon B Eickhoff
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany; Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Brain & Behaviour (INM-7), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Chunliang Feng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Suzuki C, Ikeda Y, Tateno A, Okubo Y, Fukayama H, Suzuki H. Acute Atomoxetine Selectively Modulates Encoding of Reward Value in Ventral Medial Prefrontal Cortex. J NIPPON MED SCH 2019; 86:98-107. [DOI: 10.1272/jnms.jnms.2019_86-205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Suzuki
- Anesthesiology and Clinical Physiology, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University
| | - Yumiko Ikeda
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| | - Amane Tateno
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| | - Yoshiro Okubo
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| | - Haruhisa Fukayama
- Anesthesiology and Clinical Physiology, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University
| | - Hidenori Suzuki
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Wuo-Silva R, Fukushiro-Lopes DF, Fialho BP, Hollais AW, Santos-Baldaia R, Marinho EAV, Mári-Kawamoto E, Yokoyama TS, Lopes-Silva LB, Berro LF, Frussa-Filho R, Longo BM. Participation of Dopamine D1 and D2 Receptors in the Rapid-Onset Behavioral Sensitization to Modafinil. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:211. [PMID: 30914950 PMCID: PMC6421293 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies on the abuse potential of modafinil, a psychostimulant-like drug used to treat narcolepsy, are still controversial. While some studies claim no potential for abuse, increasing evidence suggests that modafinil induces abuse-related effects, including rapid-onset behavioral sensitization (i.e., a type of sensitization that develops within hours from the drug priming administration). The rapid-onset sensitization paradigm is a valuable tool to study the neuroplastic changes that occur quickly after drug administration, and shares neuroadaptations with drug abuse in humans. However, the mechanisms involved in the rapid-onset behavioral sensitization induced by modafinil are uncertain. Our aim was to investigate the possible involvement of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors on acute modafinil-induced hyperlocomotion and on the induction and expression of rapid-onset behavioral sensitization induced by modafinil in male Swiss mice. Treatment with the D1 receptor antagonist SCH 23390 or the D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride attenuated the acute modafinil-induced hyperlocomotion in a dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment with either antagonist before the priming injection of modafinil prevented the development of sensitization in response to a modafinil challenge 4 h later. However, only SCH 23390 decreased the expression of modafinil-induced rapid-onset behavioral sensitization. Taken together, the present findings provide evidence of the participation of D1 and D2 receptors on the development of rapid-onset behavioral sensitization to modafinil, and point to a prominent role of D1 receptors on the expression of this phenomenon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Wuo-Silva
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Bruno P Fialho
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - André W Hollais
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renan Santos-Baldaia
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eduardo A V Marinho
- Department of Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
| | - Elisa Mári-Kawamoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thaís S Yokoyama
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Laís F Berro
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, United States
| | - Roberto Frussa-Filho
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Beatriz M Longo
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Asari Y, Ikeda Y, Tateno A, Okubo Y, Iijima T, Suzuki H. Acute tramadol enhances brain activity associated with reward anticipation in the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:2631-2642. [PMID: 29951769 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4955-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tramadol is an analgesic with monoamine reuptake inhibition and μ-opioid receptor activation. Although tramadol has been widely used for treatment of various pain conditions, there is controversy over the risk of abuse potential. We examined the effects of tramadol on the reward system in humans using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to assess the potential of tramadol for drug abuse or dependence. METHODS A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study was conducted for 19 healthy adults under tramadol or placebo. In association with subjective mood questionnaires, monetary incentive delay (MID) task was performed to assess the neural response to reward anticipation during fMRI. Subjective mood measures and blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal during gain and loss anticipation were compared between tramadol and placebo. RESULTS Tramadol significantly reduced anxiety (Z = - 2.513, p = 0.012) and enhanced vigor (Z = - 2.725, p = 0.006) compared with placebo. By Mood Rating Scale, tramadol provoked contented (Z = - 2.316, p = 0.021), relaxed (Z = - 2.236, p = 0.025), and amicable feelings (Z = - 2.015, p = 0.044) as well as increased alertness (Z = - 1.972, p = 0.049) and contentedness domains (Z = - 2.174, p = 0.030) compared with placebo. Several brain regions including nucleus accumbens (NAc) were activated during gain anticipation in the MID task under both tramadol and placebo. Tramadol increased the %BOLD signal change in NAc at +¥500 cue significantly more than the placebo (Z = - 2.295, p = 0.022). CONCLUSION Tramadol enhances the reward system and thereby may have abuse potential or precipitate drug abuse in human.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Asari
- Department of Perioperative Medicine, Division of Anesthesiology, Showa University School of Dentistry, 2-1-1 Kitasenzoku, Ota-ku, Tokyo, 145-8515, Japan
| | - Yumiko Ikeda
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8602, Japan
| | - Amane Tateno
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8602, Japan
| | - Yoshiro Okubo
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8602, Japan
| | - Takehiko Iijima
- Department of Perioperative Medicine, Division of Anesthesiology, Showa University School of Dentistry, 2-1-1 Kitasenzoku, Ota-ku, Tokyo, 145-8515, Japan
| | - Hidenori Suzuki
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8602, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Vodovar D, Duchêne A, Wimberley C, Leroy C, Pottier G, Dauvilliers Y, Giaume C, Lin JS, Mouthon F, Tournier N, Charvériat M. Cortico-Amygdala-Striatal Activation by Modafinil/Flecainide Combination. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2018; 21:687-696. [PMID: 29635319 PMCID: PMC6031015 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyy027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Modafinil, a nonamphetaminic wake-promoting compound, is prescribed as first line therapy in narcolepsy, an invalidating disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy. Although its mode of action remains incompletely known, recent studies indicated that modafinil modulates astroglial connexin-based gap junctional communication as administration of a low dose of flecainide, an astroglial connexin inhibitor, enhanced the wake-promoting and procognitive activity of modafinil in rodents and healthy volunteers. The aim of this study is to investigate changes in glucose cerebral metabolism in rodents, induced by the combination of modafinil+flecainide low dose (called THN102). Methods The impact of THN102 on brain glucose metabolism was noninvasively investigated using 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose Positron Emission Tomography imaging in Sprague-Dawley male rats. Animals were injected with vehicle, flecainide, modafinil, or THN102 and further injected with 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose followed by 60-minute Positron Emission Tomography acquisition. 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose Positron Emission Tomography images were coregistered to a rat brain template and normalized from the total brain Positron Emission Tomography signal. Voxel-to-voxel analysis was performed using SPM8 software. Comparison of brain glucose metabolism between groups was then performed. Results THN102 significantly increased regional brain glucose metabolism as it resulted in large clusters of 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake localized in the cortex, striatum, and amygdala compared with control or drugs administered alone. These regions, highly involved in the regulation of sleep-wake cycle, emotions, and cognitive functions were hence quantitatively modulated by THN102. Conclusion Data presented here provide the first evidence of a regional brain activation induced by THN102, currently being tested in a phase II clinical trial in narcoleptic patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Vodovar
- Imagerie Moléculaire In Vivo, IMIV, CEA, Inserm, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Univ. Paris Saclay, CEA-SHFJ, Orsay, France
| | | | - Catriona Wimberley
- Imagerie Moléculaire In Vivo, IMIV, CEA, Inserm, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Univ. Paris Saclay, CEA-SHFJ, Orsay, France
| | - Claire Leroy
- Imagerie Moléculaire In Vivo, IMIV, CEA, Inserm, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Univ. Paris Saclay, CEA-SHFJ, Orsay, France
| | - Géraldine Pottier
- Imagerie Moléculaire In Vivo, IMIV, CEA, Inserm, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Univ. Paris Saclay, CEA-SHFJ, Orsay, France
| | - Yves Dauvilliers
- National Reference Centre for Narcolepsy, CHU Montpellier, INSERM, France
| | - Christian Giaume
- Collège de France, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Paris, France
| | - Jian-Sheng Lin
- Laboratory WAKING, CRNL-INSERM U1028-CNRS UMR 5292-UCBL, Lyon, France
| | | | - Nicolas Tournier
- Imagerie Moléculaire In Vivo, IMIV, CEA, Inserm, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Univ. Paris Saclay, CEA-SHFJ, Orsay, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Oldham S, Murawski C, Fornito A, Youssef G, Yücel M, Lorenzetti V. The anticipation and outcome phases of reward and loss processing: A neuroimaging meta-analysis of the monetary incentive delay task. Hum Brain Mapp 2018; 39:3398-3418. [PMID: 29696725 PMCID: PMC6055646 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.24184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The processing of rewards and losses are crucial to everyday functioning. Considerable interest has been attached to investigating the anticipation and outcome phases of reward and loss processing, but results to date have been inconsistent. It is unclear if anticipation and outcome of a reward or loss recruit similar or distinct brain regions. In particular, while the striatum has widely been found to be active when anticipating a reward, whether it activates in response to the anticipation of losses as well remains ambiguous. Furthermore, concerning the orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal regions, activation is often observed during reward receipt. However, it is unclear if this area is active during reward anticipation as well. We ran an Activation Likelihood Estimation meta‐analysis of 50 fMRI studies, which used the Monetary Incentive Delay Task (MIDT), to identify which brain regions are implicated in the anticipation of rewards, anticipation of losses, and the receipt of reward. Anticipating rewards and losses recruits overlapping areas including the striatum, insula, amygdala and thalamus, suggesting that a generalised neural system initiates motivational processes independent of valence. The orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal regions were recruited only during the reward outcome, likely representing the value of the reward received. Our findings help to clarify the neural substrates of the different phases of reward and loss processing, and advance neurobiological models of these processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Oldham
- Brain and Mental Health Research Hub, School of Psychological Sciences and the Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Carsten Murawski
- Department of Finance, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alex Fornito
- Brain and Mental Health Research Hub, School of Psychological Sciences and the Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - George Youssef
- Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia
| | - Murat Yücel
- Brain and Mental Health Research Hub, School of Psychological Sciences and the Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Valentina Lorenzetti
- Brain and Mental Health Research Hub, School of Psychological Sciences and the Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,School of Psychology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Psychological Sciences, Institute of Psychology Health and Society, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Murao E, Sugihara G, Isobe M, Noda T, Kawabata M, Matsukawa N, Takahashi H, Murai T, Noma S. Differences in neural responses to reward and punishment processing between anorexia nervosa subtypes: An fMRI study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2017; 71:647-658. [PMID: 28459134 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM Anorexia nervosa (AN) includes the restricting (AN-r) and binge-eating/purging (AN-bp) subtypes, which have been reported to differ regarding their underlying pathophysiologies as well as their behavioral patterns. However, the differences in neural mechanisms of reward systems between AN subtypes remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to explore differences in the neural processing of reward and punishment between AN subtypes. METHODS Twenty-three female patients with AN (11 AN-r and 12 AN-bp) and 20 healthy women underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while performing a monetary incentive delay task. Whole-brain one-way analysis of variance was conducted to test between-group differences. RESULTS There were significant group differences in brain activation in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex and right posterior insula during loss anticipation, with increased brain activation in the AN-bp group relative to the AN-r and healthy women groups. No significant differences were found during gain anticipation. CONCLUSION AN-bp patients showed altered neural responses to punishment in brain regions implicated in emotional arousal. Our findings suggest that individuals with AN-bp are more sensitive to potential punishment than individuals with AN-r and healthy individuals at the neural level. The present study provides preliminary evidence that there are neurobiological differences between AN subtypes with regard to the reward system, especially punishment processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ema Murao
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Genichi Sugihara
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Masanori Isobe
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tomomi Noda
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Michiko Kawabata
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Hidehiko Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Toshiya Murai
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shun'ichi Noma
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
The “highs and lows” of the human brain on dopaminergics: Evidence from neuropharmacology. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
17
|
Bellebaum C, Kuchinke L, Roser P. Modafinil alters decision making based on feedback history - a randomized placebo-controlled double blind study in humans. J Psychopharmacol 2017; 31:243-249. [PMID: 27649777 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116668591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Modafinil is becoming increasingly popular as a cognitive enhancer. Research on the effects of modafinil on cognitive function have yielded mixed results, with negative findings for simple memory and attention tasks and enhancing effects for more complex tasks. In the present study we examined whether modafinil, due to its known effect on the dopamine level in the striatum, alters feedback-related choice behaviour. We applied a task that separately tests the choice of previously rewarded behaviours (approach) and avoidance of previously punished behaviours. 18 participants received a single dose of 200 mg modafinil. Their performance was compared to a group of 22 participants who received placebo in a double-blind design. Modafinil but not placebo induced a significant bias towards approach behaviour as compared to the frequency of avoidance behaviour. General attention, overall feedback-based acquisition of choice behaviour and reaction times in high vs low conflict choices were not significantly affected by modafinil. This finding suggests that modafinil has a specific effect on dopamine-mediated choice behaviour based on the history of feedback, while a contribution of noradrenaline is also conceivable. The described change in decision making cannot be considered as cognitive enhancement, but might rather have detrimental effects on decisions in everyday life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Bellebaum
- 1 Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Lars Kuchinke
- 2 Experimental Psychology & Methods, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.,3 Methodology and Evaluation, International Psychoanalytic University Berlin, Germany
| | - Patrik Roser
- 4 Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Preventive Medicine, LWL University Hospital, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wuo-Silva R, Fukushiro DF, Hollais AW, Santos-Baldaia R, Mári-Kawamoto E, Berro LF, Yokoyama TS, Lopes-Silva LB, Bizerra CS, Procópio-Souza R, Hashiguchi D, Figueiredo LA, Costa JL, Frussa-Filho R, Longo BM. Modafinil Induces Rapid-Onset Behavioral Sensitization and Cross-Sensitization with Cocaine in Mice: Implications for the Addictive Potential of Modafinil. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:420. [PMID: 27872594 PMCID: PMC5097917 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is substantial controversy about the addictive potential of modafinil, a wake-promoting drug used to treat narcolepsy, proposed as pharmacotherapy for cocaine abuse, and used indiscriminately by healthy individuals due to its positive effects on arousal and cognition. The rapid-onset type of behavioral sensitization (i.e., a type of sensitization that develops within a few hours from the drug priming administration) has been emerged as a valuable tool to study binge-like patterns of drug abuse and the neuroplastic changes that occur quickly after drug administration that ultimately lead to drug abuse. Our aim was to investigate the possible development of rapid-onset behavioral sensitization to modafinil and bidirectional rapid-onset cross-sensitization with cocaine in male Swiss mice. A priming injection of a high dose of modafinil (64 mg/kg) induced rapid-onset behavioral sensitization to challenge injections of modafinil at the doses of 16, 32, and 64 mg/kg, administered 4 h later. Furthermore, rapid-onset cross-sensitization was developed between modafinil and cocaine (64 mg/kg modafinil and 20 mg/kg cocaine), in a bidirectional way. These results were not due to residual levels of modafinil as the behavioral effects of the priming injection of modafinil were no longer present and modafinil plasma concentration was reduced at 4 h post-administration. Taken together, the present findings provide preclinical evidence that modafinil can be reinforcing per se and can enhance the reinforcing effects of stimulants like cocaine within hours after administration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Wuo-Silva
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil; Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
| | - Daniela F Fukushiro
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - André W Hollais
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Elisa Mári-Kawamoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Laís F Berro
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thaís S Yokoyama
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Carolina S Bizerra
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Debora Hashiguchi
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lilian A Figueiredo
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jose L Costa
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Campinas Campinas, Brazil
| | | | - Beatriz M Longo
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Physiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|