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Shetty RA, Hoch AC, Sumien N, Forster MJ, Gatch MB. Comparison of locomotor stimulant and drug discrimination effects of four synthetic cathinones to commonly abused psychostimulants. J Psychopharmacol 2023; 37:520-528. [PMID: 36738095 DOI: 10.1177/02698811221142566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The underground market is constantly flooded with newer synthetic as alternatives to the older cathinones. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has identified four cathinone compounds of particular concern: 3,4-methylenedioxy-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (3,4-MD-α-PHP), 4-chloro-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4-Cl-α-PPP), alpha-pyrrolidinoisohexiophenone (α-PiHP) and 4-chloro-pentedrone (4-Cl-pentedrone). AIMS The current study aimed to evaluate the behavioral pharmacology of four synthetic cathinones. METHODS 3,4-MD-α-PHP, 4-Cl-α-PPP, α-PiHP, and 4-CPD were tested for locomotor activity in mice and in a drug discrimination assay with rats trained to discriminate either methamphetamine or cocaine. RESULTS Locomotor stimulant effects of 3,4-MD-α-PHP ((effective dose) ED50 = 1.98 mg/kg), α-PiHP (ED50 = 2.46 mg/kg), and 4-Cl-α-PPP (ED50 = 7.18 mg/kg) were observed within 10 min following injection and lasted from 2 to 3.5 h. The stimulant action of 4-CPD (ED50 = 17.24 mg/kg) was delayed, occurring 40-70 min following injection. The maximal motor stimulant actions of 3,4-MD-α-PHP and α-PiHP 1 were equivalent to that of cocaine and methamphetamine, whereas 4-CPD (50% of cocaine) and 4-Cl-α-PPP (73% of cocaine) were less efficacious. All of the test compounds fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine, 3,4-MD-α-PHP (ED50 = 2.28 mg/kg), α-PiHP (ED50 = 3.84 mg/kg), and 4-Cl-α-PPP (ED50 = 15.56 mg/kg). Only 3,4-MD-α-PHP (ED50 = 1.65 mg/kg), α-PiHP (ED50 = 1.87 mg/kg), and 4-Cl-α-PPP (ED50 = 9.79 mg/kg) fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of methamphetamine. 4-Cl-pentedrone caused 55-70% methamphetamine-appropriate responding at doses that also suppressed responding and produced convulsions. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that 3,4-MD-α-PHP, α-PiHP, and 4-Cl-α-PPP have a potential for abuse similar to that of methamphetamine and cocaine. In contrast, 4-Cl-pentedrone may not be popular for recreational use due to its convulsant effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritu A Shetty
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Adam C Hoch
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Nathalie Sumien
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Michael J Forster
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Michael B Gatch
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
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Sahai M, Opacka-Juffry J. Molecular mechanisms of action of stimulant novel psychoactive substances that target the high-affinity transporter for dopamine. Neuronal Signal 2021; 5:NS20210006. [PMID: 34888062 PMCID: PMC8630395 DOI: 10.1042/ns20210006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug misuse is a significant social and public health problem worldwide. Misused substances exert their neurobehavioural effects through changing neural signalling within the brain, many of them leading to substance dependence and addiction in the longer term. Among drugs with addictive liability, there are illicit classical stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamine, and their more recently available counterparts known as novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Stimulants normally increase dopamine availability in the brain, including the pathway implicated in reward-related behaviour. This pattern is observed in both animal and human brain. The main biological target of stimulants, both classical and NPS, is the dopamine transporter (DAT) implicated in the dopamine-enhancing effects of these drugs. This article aims at reviewing research on the molecular mechanisms underpinning the interactions between stimulant NPS, such as benzofurans, cathinones or piperidine derivatives and DAT, to achieve a greater understanding of the core phenomena that decide about the addictive potential of stimulant NPS. As the methodology is essential in the process of experimental research in this area, we review the applications of in vitro, in vivo and in silico approaches. The latter, including molecular dynamics, attracts the focus of the present review as the method of choice in molecular and atomistic investigations of the mechanisms of addiction of stimulant NPS. Research of this kind is of interest to not only scientists but also health professionals as updated knowledge of NPS, their modes of action and health risks, is needed to tackle the challenges posed by NPS misuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A. Sahai
- School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Roehampton, London SW15 4JD, U.K
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Caffino L, Mottarlini F, Bilel S, Targa G, Tirri M, Maggi C, Marti M, Fumagalli F. Single Exposure to the Cathinones MDPV and α-PVP Alters Molecular Markers of Neuroplasticity in the Adult Mouse Brain. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7397. [PMID: 34299015 PMCID: PMC8307734 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones have gained popularity among young drug users and are widely used in the clandestine market. While the cathinone-induced behavioral profile has been extensively investigated, information on their neuroplastic effects is still rather fragmentary. Accordingly, we have exposed male mice to a single injection of MDPV and α-PVP and sacrificed the animals at different time points (i.e., 30 min, 2 h, and 24 h) to have a rapid readout of the effect of these psychostimulants on neuroplasticity in the frontal lobe and hippocampus, two reward-related brain regions. We found that a single, low dose of MDPV or α-PVP is sufficient to alter the expression of neuroplastic markers in the adult mouse brain. In particular, we found increased expression of the transcription factor Npas4, increased ratio between the vesicular GABA transporter and the vesicular glutamate transporter together with changes in the expression of the neurotrophin Bdnf, confirming the widespread impact of these cathinones on brain plasticity. To sum up, exposure to low dose of cathinones can impair cortical and hippocampal homeostasis, suggesting that abuse of these cathinones at much higher doses, as it occurs in humans, could have an even more profound impact on neuroplasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Caffino
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Francesca Mottarlini
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (S.B.); (M.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Giorgia Targa
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Micaela Tirri
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (S.B.); (M.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Coralie Maggi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Matteo Marti
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (S.B.); (M.T.); (M.M.)
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Fabio Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
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Wakeford AGP, Sherwood AM, Prisinzano TE, Bergman J, Kohut SJ, Paronis CA. Discriminative-Stimulus Effects of Synthetic Cathinones in Squirrel Monkeys. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 24:656-665. [PMID: 33909067 PMCID: PMC8378080 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyab017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cathinones display overlapping behavioral effects with psychostimulants (e.g., methamphetamine [MA]) and/or entactogens (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxymethaphetamine [MDMA])-presumably reflecting their dopaminergic and/or serotonergic activity. The discriminative stimulus effects of MDMA thought to be mediated by such activity have been well characterized in rodents but have not been fully examined in nonhuman primates. METHODS The present studies were conducted to systematically evaluate the discriminative stimulus effects of 5 abused synthetic cathinones (methylenedioxypyrovalerone [MDPV], α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone [α-PVP], methcathinone [MCAT], mephedrone, and methylone) in adult male squirrel monkeys trained to distinguish intramuscular injections of MA (0.1 mg/kg; n = 4) or MDMA (0.6 mg/kg; n = 4) from vehicle. RESULTS Each training drug produced dose-dependent effects and, at the highest dose, full substitution. MDMA produced predominantly vehicle-like responding in the MA-trained group, whereas the highest dose of MA (0.56 mg/kg) produced partial substitution (approximately 90% appropriate lever responding in one-half of the subjects) in the MDMA-trained group. MDPV, α-PVP, and MCAT produced full substitution in MA-trained subjects, but, at the same or higher doses, only substituted for MDMA in one-half of the subjects, consistent with primarily dopaminergically mediated interoceptive effects. In contrast, mephedrone and methylone fully substituted in MDMA-trained subjects but failed to fully substitute for the training drug in MA-trained subjects, suggesting a primary role for serotonergic actions in their interoceptive effects. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that differences in the interoceptive effects of synthetic cathinones in nonhuman primates reflect differing compositions of monoaminergic actions that also may mediate their subjective effects in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G P Wakeford
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,Correspondence: Alison G. P. Wakeford, PhD, Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, USA ()
| | - Alexander M Sherwood
- College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA,Usona Institute, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | | | - Jack Bergman
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Stephen J Kohut
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Carol A Paronis
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Altun B, Çok İ. Psychoactive Bath Salts and Neurotoxicity Risk. Turk J Pharm Sci 2020; 17:235-241. [PMID: 32454785 DOI: 10.4274/tjps.galenos.2018.40820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are new designer drugs that possess hallucinogenic and psychostimulant properties, and are designed to mimic the effects of illegal substances such as cocaine, amphetamines, and 3.4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) and to produce rewarding effects, circumventing existing laws and penalties. Synthetic cathinones, also referred to as 'bath salts', have become popular particularly among young people since the mid-2000s. Similar to other psychomotor stimulants, synthetic cathinones have the potential to increase monoamine concentration in the synaptic cleft by targeting the plasma membrane transporters of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Because of their structural similarities to amphetamines, it has been suggested that synthetic cathinones may have a neurotoxicity profile similar to that of their amphetamine congeners. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that synthetic cathinones may induce neurotoxicity on monoamine nerve endings in the striatum, hippocampus, and cortex. To date, with regard to synthetic cathinone neurotoxicity, parameters such as monoamine depletion, biosynthetic enzyme inhibition, cytotoxicity, generation of reactive oxygen species, pro-oxidation status, and the ability to induce neuroinflammation were investigated in both in vitro and in vivo experimental studies. Compared with amphetamines, synthetic cathinones appear to have more moderate effects than their amphetamine congeners in terms of neurotoxic effects. However, many synthetic cathinone users take these substances simultaneously with other substances such as benzodiazepines, amphetamines, ecstasy, tetrahydrocannabinol, and ethanol and this abuse can modify their neurotoxic effects. Hence, it is important to understand the underlying mechanism of early neurotoxic effects in case of polysubstance use. In this review, we aimed to present up-to-date information on the abuse potential of synthetic cathinones, their legal status, mechanism of action, and particularly their neurotoxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beril Altun
- Gazi University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - İsmet Çok
- Gazi University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Ankara, Turkey
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Synthetic psychoactive cathinones: hypothermia and reduced lethality compared to methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 191:172871. [PMID: 32061662 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Synthetic psychoactive cathinones (SPCs) are drugs with psychostimulant and entactogenic properties like methamphetamine (MA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Despite clinical reports of human overdose, it remains to be determined if SPCs have greater propensity for adverse effects than MA or MDMA. OBJECTIVES To determine whether the SPCs cathinone (CAT), methcathinone (MCAT), mephedrone (MMC), and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) have lower LD50 values than MA or MDMA. METHODS Male and female C57Bl/6J mice received single injections of one of 6 doses of a test drug (0-160 mg/kg IP). Temperature and behavioral observations were taken every 20 min for 2 h followed by euthanasia of surviving mice. Organs were weighed and evaluated for histopathological changes. RESULTS LD50 values for MA and MDMA, 84.5 and 100.9 mg/kg respectively, were similar to previous observations. The LD50 for MMC was 118.8 mg/kg, but limited lethality was observed for other SPCs (CAT, MCAT, MDPV), so LD50 values could not be calculated. For all drugs, death was associated with seizure, when it was observed. Rather than hyperthermia, dose-dependent hypothermia was observed for MMC, MDPV, CAT, and MCAT. Contrary to initial expectations, none of the SPCs studied here had LD50 values lower than MA or MDMA. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that, under the conditions studied here: (1) SPCs exhibit less lethality than MA and MDMA; (2) SPCs impair thermoregulation; (3) effects of SPCs on temperature appear to be independent of effects on lethality.
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Collins GT, Sulima A, Rice KC, France CP. Self-administration of the synthetic cathinones 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP) in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:3677-3685. [PMID: 31346629 PMCID: PMC7274354 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05339-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The availability and abuse of synthetic analogues of cathinone have increased dramatically around the world. Synthetic cathinones, such as 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone [MDPV] and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone [α-PVP], are cocaine-like inhibitors of monoamine transporters and common constituents of "bath salts" or "flakka" preparations. Studies in rats suggest that MDPV and α-PVP are 3 to 4-fold more effective reinforcers than cocaine; however, comparisons of the relative reinforcing effectiveness of MDPV and α-PVP have not been reported in other species. OBJECTIVES Accordingly, in the present study, 4 adult male rhesus monkeys responding under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement were used to characterize the reinforcing effects of MDPV and α-PVP and to compare directly these effects with those of cocaine and methamphetamine. RESULTS MDPV was the most potent reinforcer, followed by α-PVP, methamphetamine, and cocaine. α-PVP was the most effective reinforcer, followed by MDPV, cocaine, and methamphetamine. In addition to making more responses to obtain MDPV and α-PVP, monkeys also responded for longer periods of time when MDPV or α-PVP was available compared with when either cocaine or methamphetamine was available for infusion. CONCLUSIONS These studies confirm recent reports from rodents and provide strong evidence that the synthetic cathinones MDPV and α-PVP are capable of maintaining high levels of responding for prolonged periods of time, and that they function as more effective reinforcers than either cocaine or methamphetamine. The relative strength of these reinforcing effects may account for the high rates of "bath salts" use reported in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory T. Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; Addiction Research, Treatment & Training Center of Excellence, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland, 20850, USA
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland, 20850, USA
| | - Charles P. France
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; Addiction Research, Treatment & Training Center of Excellence, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA
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Gatch MB, Dolan SB, Forster MJ. Locomotor activity and discriminative stimulus effects of five novel synthetic cathinone analogs in mice and rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 2019; 199:50-58. [PMID: 30986635 PMCID: PMC6534427 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The development of novel synthetic psychoactive substances continues to accelerate. There are little or no data on the pharmacological mechanisms, behavioral effects, or abuse liability of many of the newer compounds, despite increasing reports of severe adverse effects in recreational users. METHODS The current study investigated the discriminative stimulus and locomotor stimulant effects of a group of synthetic cathinone analogs: N-ethylpentylone, dimethylone, dibutylone, clephedrone, 3',4'-tetramethylene-α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (TH-PVP). Locomotor activity was assessed in an open-field assay using Swiss-Webster mice. Discriminative stimulus effects were assessed in Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate either cocaine, methamphetamine or MDMA from vehicle. RESULTS N-Ethylpentylone, dimethylone, dibutylone and clephedrone increased locomotor activity. Maximal effects were similar among the test compounds. Relative potencies were: methamphetamine > N-ethylpentylone > clephedrone > dimethylone > MDMA > cocaine > dibutylone. TH-PVP dose-dependently depressed locomotor activity. N-Ethylpentylone, dimethylone, dibutylone and clephedrone substituted fully for the discriminative stimulus effects of methamphetamine. N-Ethylpentylone, dibutylone and clephedrone fully substituted for cocaine, whereas dimethylone produced a maximum of 67% drug-appropriate responding. Dimethylone, dibutylone and clephedrone fully substituted for MDMA, whereas N-ethylpentylone produced only 50% drug-appropriate responding. TH-PVP produced a maximum of 38% methamphetamine-appropriate responding, 50% cocaine-appropriate responding, and less than 1% MDMA-appropriate responding. CONCLUSIONS These data provide initial evidence that the novel psychoactive substances N-ethylpentylone, dimethylone, dibutylone, and clephedrone demonstrate potential for abuse as psychostimulants and/or club drugs, given their ability to stimulate locomotor activity and their substitution for the discriminative stimulus effects of methamphetamine, cocaine and/or MDMA. TH-PVP has minimal activity in the assays tested and may have little or no abuse liability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Gatch
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA.
| | - Sean B Dolan
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA
| | - Michael J Forster
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA
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Corkery JM, Guirguis A, Papanti DG, Orsolini L, Schifano F. Synthetic Cathinones—Prevalence and Motivations for Use. CURRENT TOPICS IN NEUROTOXICITY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78707-7_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
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Banks ML, Czoty PW, Negus SS. Utility of Nonhuman Primates in Substance Use Disorders Research. ILAR J 2017; 58:202-215. [PMID: 28531265 PMCID: PMC5886327 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilx014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Substance use disorders (i.e., drug addiction) constitute a global and insidious public health issue. Preclinical biomedical research has been invaluable in elucidating the environmental, biological, and pharmacological determinants of drug abuse and in the process of developing innovative pharmacological and behavioral treatment strategies. For more than 70 years, nonhuman primates have been utilized as research subjects in biomedical research related to drug addiction. There are already several excellent published reviews highlighting species differences in both pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics between rodents and nonhuman primates in preclinical substance abuse research. Therefore, the aim of this review is to highlight three advantages of nonhuman primates as preclinical substance abuse research subjects. First, nonhuman primates offer technical advantages in experimental design compared to other laboratory animals that afford unique opportunities to promote preclinical-to-clinical translational research. Second, these technical advantages, coupled with the relatively long lifespan of nonhuman primates, allows for pairing longitudinal drug self-administration studies and noninvasive imaging technologies to elucidate the biological consequences of chronic drug exposure. Lastly, nonhuman primates offer advantages in the patterns of intravenous drug self-administration that have potential theoretical implications for both the neurobiological mechanisms of substance use disorder etiology and in the drug development process of pharmacotherapies for substance use disorders. We conclude with potential future research directions in which nonhuman primates would provide unique and valuable insights into the abuse of and addiction to novel psychoactive substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L Banks
- Matthew L. Banks, PharmD, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology in the School of Medicine at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia and currently serves as a scientific member of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Paul W. Czoty, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology in the Wake Forest School of Medicine in Winston-Salem, North Carolina and currently serves as Vice-Chair of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Sidney S. Negus, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology in the School of Medicine at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia and has served as both a scientific member and chair of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
| | - Paul W Czoty
- Matthew L. Banks, PharmD, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology in the School of Medicine at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia and currently serves as a scientific member of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Paul W. Czoty, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology in the Wake Forest School of Medicine in Winston-Salem, North Carolina and currently serves as Vice-Chair of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Sidney S. Negus, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology in the School of Medicine at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia and has served as both a scientific member and chair of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
| | - Sidney S Negus
- Matthew L. Banks, PharmD, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology in the School of Medicine at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia and currently serves as a scientific member of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Paul W. Czoty, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology in the Wake Forest School of Medicine in Winston-Salem, North Carolina and currently serves as Vice-Chair of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Sidney S. Negus, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology in the School of Medicine at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia and has served as both a scientific member and chair of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
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MDPV and α-PVP use in humans: The twisted sisters. Neuropharmacology 2017; 134:65-72. [PMID: 29030166 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The new psychoactive substances phenomenon continues to represent a considerable public health challenge. Synthetic cathinones are β-keto amphetamine analogues, also known as legal highs, research chemicals, bath salts. These drugs have surfaced as a popular alternative to other illicit drugs of abuse, such as cocaine, MDMA, and methamphetamine, due to their potent psychostimulant and empathogenic effects. Pyrovalerone cathinones (a-pyrrolidinophenones) form a distinct group of designer cathinones, such as MDPV. After being listed as an illegal product, "second generation" compounds such as α-PVP, sharing a very similar chemical structure with MDPV, were developed. Clinical effects of these compounds are individual, dose- and route of administration-dependent. Both of them have been involved in an increased number of, not only acute intoxications but also fatalities over the past few years, raising concerns in the medical field. In this paper, we will review the available data regarding the use and effects of MDPV and α-PVP in humans in order to highlight their impact on public health. Health actors and general population need to be clearly informed of potential risks and consequences of these 2 novel psychoactive substances spread and use. The literature search conducted led to the identification of potentially 83 relevant articles. All articles were screened from their abstracts to determine their relevance in the framework of the current review. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Designer Drugs and Legal Highs.'
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Schmoll S, Romanek K, Stich R, Bekka E, Stenzel J, Geith S, Eyer F, Rabe C. An internet-based survey of 96 German-speaking users of "bath salts": frequent complications, risky sexual behavior, violence, and delinquency. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2017; 56:219-222. [PMID: 28753045 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2017.1353094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To define the demographics of German-speaking "bath salt" users. DESIGN Prospective web-based survey of volunteer users of "bath salts". Subject recruitment/exclusion: Participation was solicited by posts in web forums frequented by users of synthetic cathinones. An invitation to participate was also disseminated via regional drug information centers. Responses were discarded if participants refused data analysis, provided incomplete surveys, were under 18 years of age (five cases), and in case of clearly improbable answers (i.e., two cases with profanity typed in free-form input fields). Overall 96 out of 180 participants provided complete questionnaires. These were further analyzed. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS 74% of respondents were male. 41% were under the age of 30 and a further 38% between 30 and 39 years old. Cathinones were used on more than 10 days in the preceding year by 62% of study subjects. The nasal and intravenous routes of administration were most often used. About 80% of respondents reported binge use. There were frequent co-administrations of opioids and opiates. The most common complication was prolonged confusion (47%). 16% had been involuntarily confined. One third had thoughts of violence and 16% acted on these thoughts either against themselves or others. About 44% reported high-risk sexual activity under the influence of cathinones. About 31% had driven or ridden a bike while intoxicated. About 6% had problems with law-enforcement for selling cathinones and 16% for crimes committed under the influence of cathinones. In conclusion, cathinone users are typically young males in their twenties and thirties. Most are experienced drug users, particularly of alcohol and opiates/opioids. The impact on society is tremendous as evidenced by high rates of self-reported violence, high-risk sexual activity, crimes, and traffic violations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Schmoll
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Katrin Romanek
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Raphael Stich
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Elias Bekka
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Jochen Stenzel
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Stefanie Geith
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Florian Eyer
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Christian Rabe
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Technical University of Munich , Munich , Germany
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Locomotor activity and discriminative stimulus effects of a novel series of synthetic cathinone analogs in mice and rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:1237-1245. [PMID: 28210779 PMCID: PMC5364041 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4562-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recent years have seen an increase in the recreational use of novel, synthetic psychoactive substances. There are little or no data on the abuse liability of many of the newer compounds. OBJECTIVES The current study investigated the discriminative stimulus and locomotor effects of a series of synthetic analogs of cathinone: α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (α-PPP), α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone (α-PHP), α-pyrrolidinopentiothiophenone (α-PVT), 3,4-methylenedioxybutiophenone (MDPBP), and ethylone. METHODS Locomotor activity was assessed in an open-field assay using Swiss-Webster mice. Discriminative stimulus effects were assessed in Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate either cocaine or methamphetamine from vehicle. RESULTS Each of the compounds produced an inverted-U dose-effect on locomotor activity. Maximal effects were similar among the test compounds, but potencies varied with relative potencies of MDPBP > α-PPP = α-PHP > ethylone > α-PVT. Each of the test compounds substituted fully for the discriminative stimulus effects of methamphetamine. α-PPP, α-PHP, and ethylone fully substituted for cocaine. α-PVT produced a maximum of 50% cocaine-appropriate responding, and MDPBP produced an inverted-U-shaped dose-effect curve with maximum effects of 67%. CONCLUSIONS These data provide initial evidence that these structurally similar, emerging novel psychoactive substances demonstrate potential for abuse and may be utilized for their stimulant-like effects, given their ability to stimulate locomotor activity and their substitution for the discriminative stimulus effects of the classical psychostimulants cocaine and/or methamphetamine.
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