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Chen S, Zhou W, Lai M. Synthetic Cathinones: Epidemiology, Toxicity, Potential for Abuse, and Current Public Health Perspective. Brain Sci 2024; 14:334. [PMID: 38671986 PMCID: PMC11048581 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14040334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones, derived from cathinone found in the plant Catha edulis, represent the second largest and most frequently seized group of new psychoactive substances. They are considered as β-keto analogs of amphetamine, sharing pharmacological effects with amphetamine and cocaine. This review describes the neurotoxic properties of synthetic cathinones, encompassing their capacity to induce neuroinflammation, dysregulate neurotransmitter systems, and alter monoamine transporters and receptors. Additionally, it discusses the rewarding and abuse potential of synthetic cathinones drawing from findings obtained through various preclinical animal models, contextualized with other classical psychostimulants. The review also offers an overview of current abuse trends of synthetic cathinones on the illicit drug market, specifying the aspects covered, and underscores the risks they pose to public health. Finally, the review discusses public health initiatives and efforts to reduce the hazards of synthetic cathinones, including harm reduction methods, education, and current clinical management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Chen
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315201, China; (S.C.); (W.Z.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315201, China; (S.C.); (W.Z.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Miaojun Lai
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315201, China; (S.C.); (W.Z.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, Ningbo 315201, China
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Seaman RW, Lamon K, Whitton N, Latimer B, Sulima A, Rice KC, Murnane KS, Collins GT. Impacts of Self-Administered 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) Alone, and in Combination with Caffeine, on Recognition Memory and Striatal Monoamine Neurochemistry in Male Sprague Dawley Rats: Comparisons with Methamphetamine and Cocaine. Brain Sci 2024; 14:258. [PMID: 38539646 PMCID: PMC10969043 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14030258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent data suggest that 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) has neurotoxic effects; however, the cognitive and neurochemical consequences of MDPV self-administration remain largely unexplored. Furthermore, despite the fact that drug preparations that contain MDPV often also contain caffeine, little is known regarding the toxic effects produced by the co-use of these two stimulants. The current study investigated the degree to which self-administered MDPV or a mixture of MDPV+caffeine can produce deficits in recognition memory and alter neurochemistry relative to prototypical stimulants. Male Sprague Dawley rats were provided 90 min or 12 h access to MDPV, MDPV+caffeine, methamphetamine, cocaine, or saline for 6 weeks. Novel object recognition (NOR) memory was evaluated prior to any drug self-administration history and 3 weeks after the final self-administration session. Rats that had 12 h access to methamphetamine and those that had 90 min or 12 h access to MDPV+caffeine exhibited significant deficits in NOR, whereas no significant deficits were observed in rats that self-administered cocaine or MDPV. Striatal monoamine levels were not systematically affected. These data demonstrate synergism between MDPV and caffeine with regard to producing recognition memory deficits, highlighting the importance of recapitulating the manner in which drugs are used (e.g., in mixtures containing multiple stimulants, binge-like patterns of intake).
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W. Seaman
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Kariann Lamon
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
| | - Nicholas Whitton
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
| | - Brian Latimer
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kevin S. Murnane
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA
| | - Gregory T. Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
- South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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Seaman RW, Galindo DG, Stinson BT, Sulima A, Rice KC, Javors MA, Ginsburg BC, Collins GT. Cardiovascular and Locomotor Effects of Binary Mixtures of Common "Bath Salts" Constituents: Studies with Methylone, MDPV, and Caffeine in Rats. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.31.578069. [PMID: 38352520 PMCID: PMC10862873 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.31.578069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Background and Purpose The use of "Bath Salts" drug preparations has been associated with high rates of toxicity and death. Preparations often contain mixtures of drugs including multiple synthetic cathinones or synthetic cathinones and caffeine; however, little is known about whether interactions among "Bath Salts" constituents contribute to the adverse effects often reported in users. Experimental Approach This study used adult male Sprague-Dawley rats to characterize the cardiovascular effects, locomotor effects, and pharmacokinetics of methylone, MDPV, and caffeine, administered alone and as binary mixtures. Dose-addition analyses were used to determine the effect levels predicted for a strictly additive interaction for each dose pair. Key Results Methylone, MDPV, and caffeine increased heart rate and locomotion, with methylone producing the largest increase in heart rate, MDPV producing the largest increase in locomotor activity, and caffeine being the least effective in stimulating heart rate and locomotor activity. MDPV and caffeine increased mean arterial pressure, with caffeine being more effective than MDPV. The nature of the interactions between methylone and MDPV tended toward sub-additivity for all endpoints, whereas interactions between MDPV or methylone and caffeine tended to be additive or sub-additive for cardiovascular endpoints, and additive or supra-additive for increases in locomotion. No pharmacokinetic interactions were observed between individual constituents, but methylone displayed non-linear pharmacokinetics at the largest dose evaluated. Conclusion and Implications These findings demonstrate that the composition of "Bath Salts" preparations can impact both cardiovascular and locomotor effects and suggest that such interactions among constituent drugs could contribute to the "Bath Salts" toxidrome reported by human users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Seaman
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - David G Galindo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Benjamin T Stinson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Martin A Javors
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Brett C Ginsburg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Gregory T Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
- South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA
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Seaman RW, Lamon K, Whitton N, Latimer B, Sulima A, Rice KC, Murnane KS, Collins GT. Impacts of Self-Administered 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) Alone, and in Combination with Caffeine, on Recognition Memory and Striatal Monoamine Neurochemistry in Male Sprague-Dawley Rats: Comparisons with Methamphetamine and Cocaine. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.31.578247. [PMID: 38352595 PMCID: PMC10862826 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.31.578247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Recent data suggest that 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) has neurotoxic effects; however, the cognitive and neurochemical consequences of MDPV self-administration remain largely unexplored. Furthermore, despite the fact that drug preparations that contain MDPV often also contain caffeine, little is known regarding the toxic effects produced by the co-use of these two stimulants. The current study investigated the degree to which self-administered MDPV, or a mixture of MDPV+caffeine can produce deficits in recognition memory and alter neurochemistry relative to prototypical stimulants. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were provided 90-min or 12-h access to MDPV, MDPV+caffeine, methamphetamine, cocaine, or saline for 6 weeks. Novel object recognition (NOR) memory was evaluated prior to any drug self-administration history and 3 weeks after the final self-administration session. Rats that had 12-h access to methamphetamine and those that had 90-min or 12-h access to MDPV+caffeine exhibited significant deficits in NOR, whereas no significant deficits were observed in rats that self-administered cocaine or MDPV. Striatal mono-amine levels were not systematically affected. These data demonstrate synergism between MDPV and caffeine with regard to producing recognition memory deficits and lethality, highlighting the importance of recapitulating the manner in which drugs are used (e.g., in mixtures containing multiple stimulants, binge-like patterns of intake).
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Seaman
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Kariann Lamon
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
| | - Nicholas Whitton
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
| | - Brian Latimer
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States
| | - Kevin S Murnane
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, United States
| | - Gregory T Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
- South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, United States
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Doyle MR, Gannon BM, Mesmin MP, Collins GT. Application of dose-addition analyses to characterize the abuse-related effects of drug mixtures. J Exp Anal Behav 2022; 117:442-456. [PMID: 35142382 PMCID: PMC9327442 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Polysubstance use makes up a majority of drug use, yet relatively few studies investigate the abuse-related effects of drug mixtures. Dose-addition analyses provide a rigorous and quantitative method to determine the nature of the interaction (i.e., supraadditive, additive, or subadditive) between two or more drugs. As briefly reviewed here, studies in rhesus monkeys have applied dose-addition analyses to group level data to characterize the nature of the interaction between the reinforcing effects of stimulants and opioids (e.g., mixtures of cocaine + heroin). Building upon these foundational studies, more recent work has applied dose-addition analyses to better understand the nature of the interaction between caffeine and illicit stimulants such as MDPV and methamphetamine in rats. In addition to utilizing a variety of operant procedures, including drug discrimination, drug self-administration, and drug-primed reinstatement, these studies have incorporated potency and effectiveness ratios as a method for both statistical analysis and visualization of departures from additivity at both the group and individual subject level. As such, dose-addition analyses represent a powerful and underutilized approach to quantify the nature of drug-drug interactions that can be applied to a variety of abuse-related endpoints in order to better understand the behavioral pharmacology of polysubstance use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle R Doyle
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio.,South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio
| | - Brenda M Gannon
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Melson P Mesmin
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Gregory T Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio.,South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio
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Centazzo N, Chojnacki MR, Elmore JS, Rodriguez R, Acosta T, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Baumann MH, Concheiro M. Brain Concentrations of Methylone and Its Metabolites after Systemic Methylone Administration: Relationship to Pharmacodynamic Effects. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2021; 377:398-406. [PMID: 33785525 PMCID: PMC11058058 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.121.000531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone (methylone) is a new psychoactive substance with stimulant properties and potential for abuse. Despite its popularity, limited studies have examined relationships between brain concentrations of methylone, its metabolites, and pharmacodynamic effects. The goal of the present study was 2-fold: 1) to determine pharmacokinetics of methylone and its major metabolites-4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylcathinone (HMMC), 3,4-dihydroxy-N-methylcathinone (HHMC), and 3,4-methylenedioxycathinone (MDC)-in rat brain and plasma and 2) to relate brain pharmacokinetic parameters to pharmacodynamic effects including locomotor behavior and postmortem neurochemistry. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received subcutaneous methylone (6, 12, or 24 mg/kg) or saline vehicle (n = 16/dose), and subgroups were decapitated after 40 or 120 minutes. Plasma and prefrontal cortex were analyzed for concentrations of methylone and its metabolites by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Frontal cortex and dorsal striatum were analyzed for dopamine, 5-HT, and their metabolites by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrochemical detection. Brain and plasma concentrations of methylone and its metabolites rose with increasing methylone dose, but brain methylone and MDC concentrations were greater than dose-proportional. Brain-to-plasma ratios for methylone and MDC were ≥ 3 (range 3-12), whereas those for HHMC and HMMC were ≤ 0.2 (range 0.01-0.2). Locomotor activity score was positively correlated with brain methylone and MDC, whereas cortical 5-HT was negatively correlated with these analytes at 120 minutes. Our findings show that brain concentrations of methylone and MDC display nonlinear accumulation. Behavioral and neurochemical effects of systemically administered methylone are related to brain concentrations of methylone and MDC but not its hydroxylated metabolites, which do not effectively penetrate into the brain. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of methylone are related to brain concentrations of methylone and its metabolite MDC but not its hydroxylated metabolites, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylcathinone and 3,4-dihydroxy-N-methylcathinone, which do not effectively penetrate into the brain. Methylone and MDC display nonlinear accumulation in the brain, which could cause untoward effects on serotonin neurons in vulnerable brain regions, including the frontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Centazzo
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Michael R Chojnacki
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Joshua S Elmore
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Raider Rodriguez
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Teeshavi Acosta
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Masaki Suzuki
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Marta Concheiro
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
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Wakeford AGP, Sherwood AM, Prisinzano TE, Bergman J, Kohut SJ, Paronis CA. Discriminative-Stimulus Effects of Synthetic Cathinones in Squirrel Monkeys. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 24:656-665. [PMID: 33909067 PMCID: PMC8378080 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyab017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cathinones display overlapping behavioral effects with psychostimulants (e.g., methamphetamine [MA]) and/or entactogens (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxymethaphetamine [MDMA])-presumably reflecting their dopaminergic and/or serotonergic activity. The discriminative stimulus effects of MDMA thought to be mediated by such activity have been well characterized in rodents but have not been fully examined in nonhuman primates. METHODS The present studies were conducted to systematically evaluate the discriminative stimulus effects of 5 abused synthetic cathinones (methylenedioxypyrovalerone [MDPV], α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone [α-PVP], methcathinone [MCAT], mephedrone, and methylone) in adult male squirrel monkeys trained to distinguish intramuscular injections of MA (0.1 mg/kg; n = 4) or MDMA (0.6 mg/kg; n = 4) from vehicle. RESULTS Each training drug produced dose-dependent effects and, at the highest dose, full substitution. MDMA produced predominantly vehicle-like responding in the MA-trained group, whereas the highest dose of MA (0.56 mg/kg) produced partial substitution (approximately 90% appropriate lever responding in one-half of the subjects) in the MDMA-trained group. MDPV, α-PVP, and MCAT produced full substitution in MA-trained subjects, but, at the same or higher doses, only substituted for MDMA in one-half of the subjects, consistent with primarily dopaminergically mediated interoceptive effects. In contrast, mephedrone and methylone fully substituted in MDMA-trained subjects but failed to fully substitute for the training drug in MA-trained subjects, suggesting a primary role for serotonergic actions in their interoceptive effects. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that differences in the interoceptive effects of synthetic cathinones in nonhuman primates reflect differing compositions of monoaminergic actions that also may mediate their subjective effects in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G P Wakeford
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,Correspondence: Alison G. P. Wakeford, PhD, Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, USA ()
| | - Alexander M Sherwood
- College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA,Usona Institute, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | | | - Jack Bergman
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Stephen J Kohut
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Carol A Paronis
- McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA,Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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8
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MDPV "high-responder" rats also self-administer more oxycodone than their "low-responder" counterparts under a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:1183-1192. [PMID: 33484299 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05764-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Oxycodone is one of the most commonly prescribed and most frequently abused opioid analgesics, yet little is known regarding individual vulnerabilities to oxycodone abuse. The synthetic cathinone 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) has been shown to produce a "high-responder" phenotype characterized by increased drug intake and responding during periods of signaled drug unavailability (e.g., during post-infusion timeouts) in ~ 40% of male Sprague-Dawley rats. This phenotype also transfers to other psychostimulants (e.g., cocaine and methamphetamine), but it is unknown whether this phenotype transfers to other (non-stimulant) drugs of abuse. OBJECTIVES The present study aimed to (1) reestablish the "high-responder" phenotype in male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 11) that acquired self-administration of MDPV (0.032 mg/kg/inf) on a fixed ratio 1 (FR1) schedule of reinforcement and (2) compare full dose-response curves for MDPV and oxycodone self-administration under an FR5 schedule of reinforcement. RESULTS MDPV was ~ 3-fold more potent at maintaining peak levels of behavior and resulted in greater overall drug intake than oxycodone. High levels of timeout responding were noted in a subset of rats that acquired MDPV self-administration ("high-responders", n = 5), and the FR5 dose-response curve for MDPV was shifted upward for these rats relative to their "low-responder" (n = 6) counterparts. "High-responders" also self-administered more infusions of oxycodone under an FR5 schedule of reinforcement than "low-responders"; however, this was not coupled with increased levels of timeout responding. CONCLUSIONS The present data suggest that a subset of individuals with a history of using synthetic cathinones may be particularly vulnerable to the abuse of oxycodone.
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Holstein SE, Barkell GA, Young MR. Caffeine increases alcohol self-administration, an effect that is independent of dopamine D 2 receptor function. Alcohol 2021; 91:61-73. [PMID: 33429015 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2020.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The rising popularity of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmEDs) has become a significant public health concern, with AmED users reporting higher levels of alcohol intake than non-AmED users. One mechanism proposed to explain this heightened level of alcohol intake in AmED users is that the high levels of caffeine found in energy drinks may increase the positive reinforcing properties of alcohol, an effect that may be dependent on interactions between adenosine receptor signaling pathways and the dopamine D2 receptor. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to confirm whether caffeine does increase the positive reinforcing effects of alcohol using both fixed ratio (FR) and progressive ratio (PR) designs, and to investigate a potential role of the dopamine D2 receptor to caffeine-induced increases in alcohol self-administration. Male Long-Evans rats were trained to self-administer a sweetened alcohol solution (10% v/v alcohol + 2% w/v sucrose) on an FR2 schedule of reinforcement, and the effects of caffeine (0, 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg, i. p. [intraperitoneally]) on the maintenance of alcohol self-administration and alcohol break point were examined. Parallel experiments in rats trained to self-administer sucrose (0.8% w/v) were conducted to determine whether caffeine's reinforcement-enhancing effects extended to a non-drug reinforcer. Caffeine pretreatment (5-10 mg/kg) significantly increased sweetened alcohol self-administration and motivation for a sweetened alcohol reinforcer. However, similar increases in self-administration of a non-drug reinforcer were not observed. Contrary to our hypothesis, the D2 receptor antagonist eticlopride did not block a caffeine-induced increase in sweetened alcohol self-administration, nor did it alter caffeine-induced increases in motivation for a sweetened alcohol reinforcer. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that caffeine increases the positive reinforcing effects of alcohol, which may explain caffeine-induced increases in alcohol intake. However, the reinforcement-enhancing effects of caffeine appear to be independent of D2 receptor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Holstein
- Department of Psychology, Lycoming College, One College Place, Williamsport, PA, 17701, United States.
| | - Gillian A Barkell
- Department of Psychology, Lycoming College, One College Place, Williamsport, PA, 17701, United States
| | - Megan R Young
- Department of Psychology, Lycoming College, One College Place, Williamsport, PA, 17701, United States
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Doyle MR, Sulima A, Rice KC, Collins GT. Interactions between reinforcement history and drug-primed reinstatement: Studies with MDPV and mixtures of MDPV and caffeine. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e12904. [PMID: 32237282 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Many drugs of abuse are mixed with other psychoactive substances (e.g., caffeine) prior to their sale or use. Synthetic cathinones (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone [MDPV]) are commonly mixed with caffeine or other cathinones (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone [methylone]), and these "bath salts" mixtures (e.g., MDPV + caffeine) can exhibit supra-additive interactions with regard to their reinforcing and discriminative stimulus properties. However, little is known about relapse-related effects of drug mixtures. In these studies, male Sprague-Dawley rats self-administered 0.032 mg/kg/inf MDPV or a mixture of MDPV + caffeine (0.029 + 0.66 mg/kg/inf, respectively) and then underwent multiple rounds of extinction and reinstatement testing to evaluate the influence of reinforcement history and drug-associated stimuli on the effectiveness of saline (drug-paired stimuli alone), MDPV (0.032-1.0 mg/kg), caffeine (1.0-32 mg/kg), and mixtures of MDPV:caffeine (in 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3 ratios, relative to each drug's ED50 ) to reinstate responding. Dose-addition analyses were used to determine the nature of the drug-drug interaction for each mixture. MDPV and caffeine dose-dependently reinstated responding and were equally effective, regardless of reinforcement history. Most fixed ratio mixtures of MDPV + caffeine exhibited supra-additive interactions, reinstating responding to levels greater than was observed with caffeine and/or MDPV alone. Drug-associated stimuli also played a key role in reinstating responding, especially for caffeine. Together, these results demonstrate that the composition of drug mixtures can impact relapse-related effects of drug mixtures, and "bath salts" mixtures (MDPV + caffeine) may be more effective at promoting relapse-related behaviors than the constituents alone. Further research is needed to determine how other polysubstance reinforcement histories can impact relapse-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle R. Doyle
- Department of Pharmacology The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio San Antonio Texas USA
- Research Service South Texas Veterans Health Care System San Antonio Texas USA
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch NIDA and NIAAA Bethesda Maryland USA
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch NIDA and NIAAA Bethesda Maryland USA
| | - Gregory T. Collins
- Department of Pharmacology The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio San Antonio Texas USA
- Research Service South Texas Veterans Health Care System San Antonio Texas USA
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de Moura FB, Sherwood A, Prisinzano TE, Paronis CA, Bergman J, Kohut SJ. Reinforcing effects of synthetic cathinones in rhesus monkeys: Dose-response and behavioral economic analyses. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 202:173112. [PMID: 33444603 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The abuse of synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") with psychomotor stimulant and/or entactogenic properties emerged as a public health concern when they were introduced as "legal" alternatives to drugs of abuse such as cocaine or MDMA. In this study, experiments were conducted in nonhuman primates to examine how differences in transporter selectivity might impact the reinforcing effects of synthetic cathinones. Rhesus monkeys (N = 5) were trained to respond for intravenous injections under a fixed-ratio (FR) 30, timeout 60-s schedule of reinforcement. The reinforcing effects of selected cathinones (e.g., MDPV, αPVP, MCAT, and methylone) with a range of pharmacological effects at dopamine and serotonin transporters were compared to cocaine and MDMA using dose-response analysis under a simple FR schedule and behavioral economic procedures that generated demand curves for two doses of each drug. Results show that one or more doses of all drugs were readily self-administered in each subject and, excepting MDMA (21 injections/session), peak levels of self-administration were similar across drugs (between 30 and 40 injections/session). Demand elasticity for the peak and the peak + 1/2-log dose of each drug did not significantly differ, and when data for the two doses were averaged for each drug, the following rank-order of reinforcing strength emerged: cocaine > MCAT = MDPV = methylone > αPVP = MDMA. These results indicate that the reinforcing strength of synthetic cathinones are not related to their selectivity in binding dopamine or serotonin transporter sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando B de Moura
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Thomas E Prisinzano
- College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Carol A Paronis
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jack Bergman
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Stephen J Kohut
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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12
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Assessment of aversive effects of methylone in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats: Conditioned taste avoidance, body temperature and activity/stereotypies. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2021; 86:106977. [PMID: 33831534 PMCID: PMC9924097 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2021.106977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Methylone's rewarding effects have been well characterized; however, little is known about its aversive effects and how such effects may be impacted by sex. In this context, the present study investigated the aversive effects of methylone (vehicle, 5.6, 10 or 18 mg/kg, IP) in 35 male and 31 female Sprague-Dawley rats assessed by conditioned taste avoidance and changes in body temperature and activity/stereotypies. Methylone induced significant taste avoidance, changes in temperature and increased activity and stereotypies in both males and females. Similar to work with other synthetic cathinones, methylone has aversive effects as indexed by significant taste avoidance and changes in temperature and activity (two characteristics of methylone overdose in humans). The only endpoint for which there were significant sex differences was in general activity with males displaying a faster onset and females displaying a longer duration. Although sex was not a factor with taste avoidance and temperature, separate analyses for males and females revealed different patterns, e.g., males displayed a more rapid acquisition of taste avoidance and females displayed changes in temperature at lower doses. Males displayed a faster onset and females displayed a longer duration of activity (consistent with the analyses considering sex as a factor), while time- and dose-dependent stereotypies did not show consistent pattern differences. Although sex differences were relatively limited when sex was specifically assessed as a factor (or only evident when sex comparisons were made in the patterns of effects), sex as a biological variable in the study of drugs should be made to determine if differences exist and, if evident, the basis for these differences.
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Gatch MB, Forster MJ. Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-like discriminative stimulus effects of pyrrolidinyl cathinones in rats. J Psychopharmacol 2020; 34:778-785. [PMID: 32536334 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120914213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cathinone derivatives are used as alternatives both for stimulant drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine and for club drugs such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), but little is known about their MDMA-like subjective effects. METHODS In order to determine their similarity to MDMA, the discriminative stimulus effects of 10 pyrrolidinyl cathinones (α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone, 4'-methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4'-MePPP), α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone, 3',4'-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone (MD-PBP), α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, 3,4-methylenedioxy-pyrovalerone (MDPV), α-pyrrolidinopentiothiophenone, napthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone), α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone, and 4'-methyl-α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone (4'-MePHP)) were assessed in Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate 1.5 mg/kg racemic ±-MDMA from vehicle. RESULTS Compounds with no substitutions on the phenyl ring and the thiophene produced 44-67% MDMA-appropriate responding. In contrast, the substituted pyrrolidinyl cathinones produced a range of MDMA-appropriate responding dependent upon the length of the alpha side chain. 4'-MePPP, with a single carbon on the alpha position, produced 99.8% MDMA-appropriate responding, MD-PBP (two carbons) produced 83%, naphyrone (three carbons) produced 71%, MDPV (three carbons) produced, 66%, and 4'-MePHP (four carbons) produced 47%. CONCLUSIONS Many cathinone compounds have discriminative stimulus effects similar to those of MDMA. However, the pyrrolidine substitution appears to reduce serotonergic effects, with a commensurate decrease in MDMA-like effects. Substitutions on the phenyl ring appear to be able to restore MDMA-like responding, but only in compounds with short alpha side chains. These findings agree with earlier findings of increasing dopaminergic effects and stronger reinforcing effects with increasing side chain. Assessment of more compounds is necessary to establish the replicability/robustness of this phenomenon. These findings may be of use in predicting which compounds will have MDMA/club drug-like effects versus psychostimulant-like effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Gatch
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, USA
| | - Michael J Forster
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, USA
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Santos‐Toscano R, Guirguis A, Davidson C. How preclinical studies have influenced novel psychoactive substance legislation in the UK and Europe. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:452-481. [DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Santos‐Toscano
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University Swansea UK
| | - Colin Davidson
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
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Collins GT, Sulima A, Rice KC, France CP. Self-administration of the synthetic cathinones 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP) in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:3677-3685. [PMID: 31346629 PMCID: PMC7274354 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05339-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The availability and abuse of synthetic analogues of cathinone have increased dramatically around the world. Synthetic cathinones, such as 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone [MDPV] and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone [α-PVP], are cocaine-like inhibitors of monoamine transporters and common constituents of "bath salts" or "flakka" preparations. Studies in rats suggest that MDPV and α-PVP are 3 to 4-fold more effective reinforcers than cocaine; however, comparisons of the relative reinforcing effectiveness of MDPV and α-PVP have not been reported in other species. OBJECTIVES Accordingly, in the present study, 4 adult male rhesus monkeys responding under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement were used to characterize the reinforcing effects of MDPV and α-PVP and to compare directly these effects with those of cocaine and methamphetamine. RESULTS MDPV was the most potent reinforcer, followed by α-PVP, methamphetamine, and cocaine. α-PVP was the most effective reinforcer, followed by MDPV, cocaine, and methamphetamine. In addition to making more responses to obtain MDPV and α-PVP, monkeys also responded for longer periods of time when MDPV or α-PVP was available compared with when either cocaine or methamphetamine was available for infusion. CONCLUSIONS These studies confirm recent reports from rodents and provide strong evidence that the synthetic cathinones MDPV and α-PVP are capable of maintaining high levels of responding for prolonged periods of time, and that they function as more effective reinforcers than either cocaine or methamphetamine. The relative strength of these reinforcing effects may account for the high rates of "bath salts" use reported in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory T. Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; Addiction Research, Treatment & Training Center of Excellence, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland, 20850, USA
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland, 20850, USA
| | - Charles P. France
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; Addiction Research, Treatment & Training Center of Excellence, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, USA
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