Fragmentation of intra-peptide and inter-peptide disulfide bonds of proteolytic peptides by nanoESI collision-induced dissociation

Streptomyces small laccase expressed in Aspergillus Niger as a new addition for the lignocellulose bioconversion toolbox

Laccases are multi-copper oxidases that are usually composed of three Cu-oxidase domains. Domains one and three house the copper binding sites, and the second domain is involved in forming a substrate-binding cleft. However, Streptomyces species are found to have small laccases (SLAC) that lack one of the three Cu-oxidase domains. This type of SLAC with interesting lignocellulose bioconversion activities has not been reported in Aspergillus niger. In our research, we explored the expression and engineering of the SLAC from Streptomyces leeuwenhoekii C34 in A. niger. Genes encoding two versions of the SLAC were expressed. One encoding the SLAC in its native form and a second encoding the SLAC fused to two N-terminal CBM1 domains. The latter is a configuration also known for specific yeast laccases. Both SLAC variants were functionally expressed in A. niger as shown by in vitro activity assays and proteome analysis. Laccase activity was also analyzed toward bioconversion of lignocellulosic rice straw. From this analysis it was clear that the SLAC activity improved the efficiency of saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass by cellulase enzyme cocktails.

EThcD Benefits for the Sequencing Inside Intramolecular Disulfide Cycles of Amphibian Intact Peptides

Disulfide bonds formed by a pair of cysteine residues in the peptides' backbone represent a certain problem for their sequencing by means of mass spectrometry. As a rule, in proteomics, disulfide bonds should be cleaved before the analysis followed by some sort of chemical derivatization. That step is time-consuming and may lead to losses of minor peptides of the analyzed mixtures due to incomplete reaction, adsorption on the walls of the vials, etc. Certain problems in the de novo top-down sequencing of amphibian skin peptides are caused by the C-terminal disulfide loop, called the Rana box. Its reduction with or without subsequent derivatization was considered to be an unavoidable step before mass spectrometry. In the present study, EThcD demonstrated its efficiency in sequencing intact disulfide-containing peptides without any preliminary derivatization. Applied to the secretion of three frog species, EThcD provided the full sequence inside the intramolecular disulfide cycle for all S-S-containing peptides found in the samples, with the only exception being diarginine species. Proteolytic fragments, which are shorter than the original peptides, were helpful in some cases. HCD should be mentioned as a complementary tool to the EThcD tool, being useful as a confirmation method for some sequence details.

In-solution buffer-free digestion allows full-sequence coverage and complete characterization of post-translational modifications of the receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 in a single ESI-MS spectrum

Subunit vaccines based on the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 provide one of the most promising strategies to fight the COVID-19 pandemic. The detailed characterization of the protein primary structure by mass spectrometry (MS) is mandatory, as described in ICHQ6B guidelines. In this work, several recombinant RBD proteins produced in five expression systems were characterized using a non-conventional protocol known as in-solution buffer-free digestion (BFD). In a single ESI-MS spectrum, BFD allowed very high sequence coverage (≥ 99%) and the detection of highly hydrophilic regions, including very short and hydrophilic peptides (2-8 amino acids), and the His6-tagged C-terminal peptide carrying several post-translational modifications at Cys538 such as cysteinylation, homocysteinylation, glutathionylation, truncated glutathionylation, and cyanylation, among others. The analysis using the conventional digestion protocol allowed lower sequence coverage (80-90%) and did not detect peptides carrying most of the above-mentioned PTMs. The two C-terminal peptides of a dimer [RBD(319-541)-(His)6]2 linked by an intermolecular disulfide bond (Cys538-Cys538) with twelve histidine residues were only detected by BFD. This protocol allows the detection of the four disulfide bonds present in the native RBD, low-abundance scrambling variants, free cysteine residues, O-glycoforms, and incomplete processing of the N-terminal end, if present. Artifacts generated by the in-solution BFD protocol were also characterized. BFD can be easily implemented; it has been applied to the characterization of the active pharmaceutical ingredient of two RBD-based vaccines, and we foresee that it can be also helpful to the characterization of mutated RBDs.

TSGIT: An N- and C-terminal tandem tag system for purification of native and intein-mediated ligation-ready proteins

A large variety of fusion tags have been developed to improve protein expression, solubilization, and purification. Nevertheless, these tags have been combined in a rather limited number of composite tags and usually these composite tags have been dictated by traditional commercially-available expression vectors. Moreover, most commercially-available expression vectors include either N- or C-terminal fusion tags but not both. Here, we introduce TSGIT, a fusion-tag system composed of both N- and a C-terminal composite fusion tags. The system includes two affinity tags, two solubilization tags and two cleavable tags distributed at both termini of the protein of interest. Therefore, the N- and the C-terminal composite fusion tags in TSGIT are fully orthogonal in terms of both affinity selection and cleavage. For using TSGIT, we streamlined the cloning, expression, and purification procedures. Each component tag is selected to maximize its benefits toward the final construct. By expressing and partially purifying the protein of interest between the components of the TSGIT fusion, the full-length protein is selected over truncated forms, which has been a long-standing problem in protein purification. Moreover, due to the nature of the cleavable tags in TSGIT, the protein of interest is obtained in its native form without any additional undesired N- or C-terminal amino acids. Finally, the resulting purified protein is ready for efficient ligation with other proteins or peptides for downstream applications. We demonstrate the use of this system by purifying a large amount of native fluorescent mRuby3 protein and bacteriophage T7 gp2.5 ssDNA-binding protein.

Aurora A regulation by reversible cysteine oxidation reveals evolutionarily conserved redox control of Ser/Thr protein kinase activity

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are physiological mediators of cellular signaling and play potentially damaging roles in human diseases. In this study, we found that the catalytic activity of the Ser/Thr kinase Aurora A was inhibited by the oxidation of a conserved cysteine residue (Cys290) that lies adjacent to Thr288, a critical phosphorylation site in the activation segment. Cys is present at the equivalent position in ~100 human Ser/Thr kinases, a residue that we found was important not only for the activity of human Aurora A but also for that of fission yeast MAPK-activated kinase (Srk1) and PKA (Pka1). Moreover, the presence of this conserved Cys predicted biochemical redox sensitivity among a cohort of human CAMK, AGC, and AGC-like kinases. Thus, we predict that redox modulation of the conserved Cys290 of Aurora A may be an underappreciated regulatory mechanism that is widespread in eukaryotic Ser/Thr kinases. Given the key biological roles of these enzymes, these findings have implications for understanding physiological and pathological responses to ROS and highlight the importance of protein kinase regulation through multivalent modification of the activation segment.

Characterization of Protein Disulfide Linkages by MS In-Source Dissociation Comparing to CID and ETD Tandem MS

Direct characterization of disulfide linkages in proteins by mass spectrometry has been challenging. Here, we report analysis of disulfide linkages in insulin variant, endothelin 3, and relaxin 2 by in-source dissociation (ISD) during LC-MS. A duplet insulin peptide from Glu-C digestion that contains peptides p1 and p2 (from chains A and B, respectively) was selected as a model peptide. This duplet peptide has an inter-chain disulfide bond between p1 and p2, and an intra-chain disulfide bond in p1. To compare the gas-phase fragmentation, it was subjected to ISD MS and MS/MS methods, including collision-induced dissociation (CID) and electron transfer dissociation (ETD). The pattern and efficiency of peptide backbone and disulfide cleavage varied with these dissociation methods. ETD, CID, and ISD were able to generate single backbone, double backbone, and triple (double backbone and single disulfide bond) cleavages in this model peptide, respectively. Specifically, CID did not cleave disulfide bonds and ETD was able to only cleave the inter-chain disulfide bond at low efficiency, limiting their usage in this disulfide analysis. In contrast, ISD was able to cleave the intra-chain disulfide bond in addition to peptide backbone, creating multiple fragment ions that allow accurate assignment of both intra- and inter-chain disulfide linkages. ISD was also successfully applied to determine double disulfide linkages in endothelin 3 and relaxin 2 peptides. This study contributes to the fundamental understanding of disulfide bond cleavages in different gas-phase fragmentations and provides an efficient cleavage strategy for identification of disulfide bonds in proteins by ISD ESI-MS. Graphical Abstract.

Comprehensive identification of protein disulfide bonds with pepsin/trypsin digestion, Orbitrap HCD and Spectrum Identification Machine

Disulfide bonds (SS) are post-translational modifications important for the proper folding and stabilization of many cellular proteins with therapeutic uses, including antibodies and other biologics. With budding advances of biologics and biosimilars, there is a mounting need for a robust method for accurate identification of SS. Even though several mass spectrometry methods have emerged for this task, their practical use rests on the broad effectiveness of both sample preparation methods and bioinformatics tools. Here we present a new protocol tailored toward mapping SS; it uses readily available reagents, instruments, and software. For sample preparation, a 4-h pepsin digestion at pH 1.3 followed by an overnight trypsin digestion at pH 6.5 can maximize the release of SS-containing peptides from non-reduced proteins, while minimizing SS scrambling. For LC/MS/MS analysis, SS-containing peptides can be efficiently fragmented with HCD in a Q Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer, preserving SS for subsequent identification. Our bioinformatics protocol describes how we tailored our freely downloadable and easy-to-use software, Spectrum Identification Machine for Cross-Linked Peptides (SIM-XL), to minimize false identification and facilitate manual validation of SS-peptide mass spectra. To substantiate this optimized method, we've comprehensively identified 14 out of 17 known SS in BSA. SIGNIFICANCE: Comprehensive and accurate identification of SS in proteins is critical for elucidating protein structures and functions. Yet, it is far from routine to accomplish this task in many analytical or core laboratories. Numerous published methods require complex sample preparation methods, specialized mass spectrometers and cumbersome or proprietary software tools, thus cannot be easily implemented in unspecialized laboratories. Here, we describe a robust and rapid SS mapping approach that utilizes readily available reagents, instruments, and software; it can be easily implemented in any analytical core laboratories, and tested for its impact on the research community.

Characterization of low-abundance species in the active pharmaceutical ingredient of CIGB-300: A clinical-grade anticancer synthetic peptide

CIGB-300 is a first-in-class synthetic peptide-based drug of 25 amino acids currently undergoing clinical trials in cancer patients. It contains an amidated disulfide cyclic undecapeptide fused to the TAT cell-penetrating peptide through a beta-alanine spacer. CIGB-300 inhibits the CK2-mediated phosphorylation leading to apoptosis of tumor cells in vitro, and in vivo in cancer patients. Despite the clinical development of CIGB-300, the characterization of peptide-related impurities present in the active pharmaceutical ingredient has not been reported earlier. In the decision tree of ICHQ3A(R2) guidelines, the daily doses intake, the abundance, and the identity of the peptide-related species are pivotal nodes that define actions to be taken (reporting, identification, and qualification). For this, purity was first assessed by reverse-phase chromatography (>97%) and low-abundance impurities (≤0.27%) were collected and identified by mass spectrometry. Most of the impurities were generated during peptide synthesis, the spontaneous air oxidation of the reduced peptide, and the lyophilization step. The most abundant impurity, with no biological activity, was the full-length peptide containing Met¹⁷ transformed into a sulfoxide residue. Interestingly, parallel and antiparallel dimers of CIGB-300 linked by 2 intermolecular disulfide bonds exhibited a higher antiproliferative activity than the CIGB-300 monomer. Likewise, very low abundance trimers and tetramers of CIGB-300 linked by disulfide bonds (≤0.01%) were also detected. Here we describe for the first time the presence of active dimeric species whose feasibility as novel CIGB-300 derived entities merits further investigation.

Rational mutagenesis by engineering disulphide bonds improves Kluyveromyces lactis beta-galactosidase for high-temperature industrial applications

Kluyveromyces lactis β-galactosidase (Kl-β-Gal) is one of the most important enzymes in the dairy industry. The poor stability of this enzyme limits its use in the synthesis of galactooligosaccharides (GOS) and other applications requiring high operational temperature. To obtain thermoresistant variants, a rational mutagenesis strategy by introducing disulphide bonds in the interface between the enzyme subunits was used. Two improved mutants, R116C/T270C and R116C/T270C/G818C, had increased half-lives at 45 °C compared to Kl-β-Gal (2.2 and 6.8 fold increases, respectively). Likewise, Tm values of R116C/T270C and R116C/T270C/G818C were 2.4 and 8.5 °C, respectively, higher than Kl-β-Gal Tm. Enrichment in enzymatically active oligomeric forms in these mutant variants also increased their catalytic efficiency, due to the reinforcement of the interface contacts. In this way, using an artificial substrate (p-nitrophenyl-β-D-galactopyranoside), the Vmax values of the mutants were ~1.4 (R116C/T270C) and 2 (R116C/T270C/G818C) fold higher than that of native Kl-β-Gal. Using the natural substrate (lactose) the Vmax for R116C/T270C/G818C almost doubled the Vmax for Kl-β-Gal. Validation of these mutant variants of the enzyme for their use in applications that depend on prolonged incubations at high temperatures was achieved at the laboratory scale by monitoring their catalytic activity in GOS synthesis.

Characterization of Protein N-Glycosylation by Analysis of ZIC-HILIC-Enriched Intact Proteolytic Glycopeptides

Zwitterionic hydrophilic interaction chromatography (ZIC-HILIC) solid-phase extraction (SPE) combined with direct-infusion nanoESI mass spectrometry (MS) and tandem MS/MS is a well-suited method for the analysis of protein N-glycosylation. A site-specific characterization of N-glycopeptides is achieved by the combination of proteolytic digestions employing unspecific proteases, glycopeptide enrichment by use of ZIC-HILIC SPE, and subsequent mass spectrometric analysis. The use of thermolysin or a mixture of trypsin and chymotrypsin leads per se to a mass-based separation, that is, small nonglycosylated peptides and almost exclusively glycopeptides at higher m/z values. As a result of their higher hydrophilicity N-glycopeptides comprising short peptide backbones are preferably accumulated by the ZIC-HILIC-based separation procedure. By employing this approach complications associated with low ionization efficiencies of N-glycopeptides resulting from signal suppression in the presence of highly abundant nonglycosylated peptides can be largely reduced. Here, we describe a simple protocol aimed at the enrichment of N-glycopeptides derived from in-solution and in-gel digestions of SDS-PAGE-separated glycoproteins preceding mass spectrometric analysis.

Structural characterization of arginine-vasopressin and lysine-vasopressin by Fourier- transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry and infrared multiphoton dissociation

Arginine-vasopressin (AVP) and lysine-vasopressin (LVP) were analyzed by reversed-phase liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC-MS) using Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry (MS) electrospray ionization (ESI) in the positive ion mode. LVP and AVP exhibited the protonated adduct [M+H](+) as the predominant ion at m/z 1056.43965 and at m/z 1084.44561, respectively. Infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD), using a CO(2) laser source at a wavelength of 10.6 μm, was applied to protonated vasopressin molecules. The IRMPD mass spectra presented abundant mass fragments essential for a complete structural information. Several fragment ions, shared between two target molecules, are discussed in detail. Some previously unpublished fragments were identified unambiguously utilizing the high resolution and accurate mass information provided by the FT-ICR mass spectrometer. The opening of the disulfide loop and the cleavage of the peptide bonds within the ring were observed even under low-energy fragmentation conditions. Coupling the high-performance FT-ICR mass spectrometer with IRMPD as a contemporary fragmentation technique proved to be very promising for the structural characterization of vasopressin.

Dystroglycan binding to α-neurexin competes with neurexophilin-1 and neuroligin in the brain

α-Neurexins (α-Nrxn) are mostly presynaptic cell surface molecules essential for neurotransmission that are linked to neuro-developmental disorders as autism or schizophrenia. Several interaction partners of α-Nrxn are identified that depend on alternative splicing, including neuroligins (Nlgn) and dystroglycan (αDAG). The trans-synaptic complex with Nlgn1 was extensively characterized and shown to partially mediate α-Nrxn function. However, the interactions of α-Nrxn with αDAG, neurexophilins (Nxph1) and Nlgn2, ligands that occur specifically at inhibitory synapses, are incompletely understood. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we demonstrate the exact binding epitopes of αDAG and Nxph1 on Nrxn1α and show that their binding is mutually exclusive. Identification of an unusual cysteine bridge pattern and complex type glycans in Nxph1 ensure binding to the second laminin/neurexin/sex hormone binding (LNS2) domain of Nrxn1α, but this association does not interfere with Nlgn binding at LNS6. αDAG, in contrast, interacts with both LNS2 and LNS6 domains without inserts in splice sites SS#2 or SS#4 mostly via LARGE (like-acetylglucosaminyltransferase)-dependent glycans attached to the mucin region. Unexpectedly, binding of αDAG at LNS2 prevents interaction of Nlgn at LNS6 with or without splice insert in SS#4, presumably by sterically hindering each other in the u-form conformation of α-Nrxn. Thus, expression of αDAG and Nxph1 together with alternative splicing in Nrxn1α may prevent or facilitate formation of distinct trans-synaptic Nrxn·Nlgn complexes, revealing an unanticipated way to contribute to the identity of synaptic subpopulations.

Techniques for the analysis of cysteine sulfhydryls and oxidative protein folding

SIGNIFICANCE

Modification of cysteine thiols dramatically affects protein function and stability. Hence, the abilities to quantify specific protein sulfhydryl groups within complex biological samples and map disulfide bond structures are crucial to gaining greater insights into how proteins operate in human health and disease.

RECENT ADVANCES

Many different molecular probes are now commercially available to label and track cysteine residues at great sensitivity. Coupled with mass spectrometry, stable isotope-labeled sulfhydryl-specific reagents can provide previously unprecedented molecular insights into the dynamics of cysteine modification. Likewise, the combined application of modern mass spectrometers with improved sample preparation techniques and novel data mining algorithms is beginning to routinize the analysis of complex protein disulfide structures.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Proper application of these modern tools and techniques, however, still requires fundamental understanding of sulfhydryl chemistry as well as the assumptions that accompany sample preparation and underlie effective data interpretation.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The continued development of tools, technical approaches, and corresponding data processing algorithms will, undoubtedly, facilitate site-specific protein sulfhydryl quantification and disulfide structure analysis from within complex biological mixtures with ever-improving accuracy and sensitivity. Fully routinizing disulfide structure analysis will require an equal but balanced focus on sample preparation and corresponding mass spectral dataset reproducibility.

Determination of disulfide linkages in antimicrobial peptides of the macin family by combination of top-down and bottom-up proteomics

Macins are a distinct class of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) produced by leeches and Hydra. Their function depends strongly on their three-dimensional structure. In order to support structural elucidation of these AMPs, the knowledge and proper assignment of disulfide bonds formed in these cysteine-rich peptides is a prerequisite. In this report, we outline an analytical strategy, encompassing a combination of top-down MS based analytics and sequence-dependent enzyme cleavage under native conditions followed by high mass accuracy and high resolution MS/MS analysis by LTQ-Orbitrap MS to assign disulfide linkages of three members of the macin family, namely neuromacin, theromacin, and hydramacin-1. The results revealed that the eight cysteine residues conserved in all three macins form the same four disulfide bonds, i.e. [C1:C6], [C2:C5], [C3:C7], and [C4:C8]. Theromacin, which possess two additional cysteine residues, forms a fifth disulfide bond.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Beside the high biological significance which is based on the inherent dependence of biological activity on the structural features of antimicrobial peptides (which holds true for entirely every protein), the presented analytical strategy will be of wide interest, as it widens the available toolbox for the analysis of this important posttranslational modification.

Jack bean α-mannosidase: amino acid sequencing and N-glycosylation analysis of a valuable glycomics tool

Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) seeds contain several biologically important proteins among which α-mannosidase (EC 3.2.1.24) has been purified, its biochemical properties studied and widely used in glycan analysis. In the present study, we have used the purified enzyme and derived its amino acid sequence covering both the known subunits (molecular mass of ∼66,000 and ∼44,000 Da) hitherto not known in its entirety. Peptide de novo sequencing and structural elucidation of N-glycopeptides obtained either directly from proteolytic digestion or after zwitterionic hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography solid phase extraction-based separation were performed by use of nanoelectrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and low-energy collision-induced dissociation experiments. De novo sequencing provided new insights into the disulfide linkage organization, intersection of subunits and complete N-glycan structures along with site specificities. The primary sequence suggests that the enzyme belongs to glycosyl hydrolase family 38 and the N-glycan sequence analysis revealed high-mannose oligosaccharides, which were found to be heterogeneous with varying number of hexoses viz, Man8-9GlcNAc2 and Glc1Man9GlcNAc2 in an evolutionarily conserved N-glycosylation site. This site with two proximal cysteines is present in all the acidic α-mannosidases reported so far in eukaryotes. Further, a truncated paucimannose type was identified to be lacking terminal two mannose, Man1(Xyl)GlcNAc2 (Fuc).

A novel electrochemical method for efficient reduction of disulfide bonds in peptides and proteins prior to MS detection

A novel electrochemical (EC) method for fast and efficient reduction of the disulfide bonds in proteins and peptides is presented. The method does not use any chemical agents and is purely instrumental. To demonstrate the performance of the EC reactor cell online with electrospray mass spectrometry, insulin and somatostatin were used as model compounds. Efficient reduction is achieved in continuous infusion mode using an EC reactor cell with a titanium-based working electrode. Under optimized conditions, the presented method shows almost complete reduction of insulin and somatostatin. The method does not require any special sample preparation, and the EC reactor cell makes it suitable for automation. Online EC reduction followed by collision-induced dissociation fragmentation of somatostatin showed more backbone cleavages and improved sequence coverage. By adjusting the settings, the EC reaction efficiency was gradually changed from partial to full disulfide bonds reduction in α-lactalbumin, and the expected shift in charge state distribution has been demonstrated. The reduction can be controlled by adjusting the square-wave pulse, flow rate or mobile phase composition. We have shown the successful use of an EC reactor cell for fast and efficient reduction of disulfide bonds for online mass spectrometry of proteins and peptides. The possibility of online and gradual disulfide bond reduction adds a unique dimension to characterization of disulfide bonds in mid-and top-down proteomics applications.

Strategies in mass spectrometry for the assignment of Cys-Cys disulfide connectivities in proteins

Elucidating disulfide linkage patterns is a crucial part of protein characterization, for which mass spectrometry (MS) is now an indispensable analytical tool. In many cases, MS-based disulfide connectivity assignment is straightforwardly achieved using one-step protein fragmentation in the unreduced form followed by mass measurement of bridged fragments. By contrast, venom proteins, which are receiving increasing interest as potential therapeutics, are a challenge for MS-based disulfide assignment due to their numerous closely spaced cysteines and knotted disulfide structure, requiring creative strategies to determine their connectivity. Today, these include the use of an array of reagents for enzymatic and/or chemical cleavage, partial reduction, differential cysteine labeling and tandem MS. This review aims to describe the toolkit of techniques available to MS users approaching both straightforward and complex disulfide bridge assignments, with a particular focus on strategies utilizing standard instrumentation found in a well-equipped analytical or proteomics laboratory.

The sequence and structure of snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina) seed lectin, a three-chain nontoxic homologue of type II RIPs

The sequence and structure of snake gourd seed lectin (SGSL), a nontoxic homologue of type II ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs), have been determined by mass spectrometry and X-ray crystallography, respectively. As in type II RIPs, the molecule consists of a lectin chain made up of two β-trefoil domains. The catalytic chain, which is connected through a disulfide bridge to the lectin chain in type II RIPs, is cleaved into two in SGSL. However, the integrity of the three-dimensional structure of the catalytic component of the molecule is preserved. This is the first time that a three-chain RIP or RIP homologue has been observed. A thorough examination of the sequence and structure of the protein and of its interactions with the bound methyl-α-galactose indicate that the nontoxicity of SGSL results from a combination of changes in the catalytic and the carbohydrate-binding sites. Detailed analyses of the sequences of type II RIPs of known structure and their homologues with unknown structure provide valuable insights into the evolution of this class of proteins. They also indicate some variability in carbohydrate-binding sites, which appears to contribute to the different levels of toxicity exhibited by lectins from various sources.

Collision-induced dissociation fragmentation inside disulfide C-terminal loops of natural non-tryptic peptides

Collision-induced dissociation (CID) spectra of long non-tryptic peptides are usually quite complicated and rather difficult to interpret. Disulfide bond formed by two cysteine residues at C-terminus of frog skin peptides precludes one to determine sequence inside the forming loop. Thereby, chemical modification of S-S bonds is often used in "bottom up" sequencing approach. However, low-energy CID spectra of natural non-tryptic peptides with C-terminal disulfide cycle demonstrate an unusual fragmentation route, which may be used to elucidate the "hidden" C-terminal sequence. Low charge state protonated molecules experience peptide bond cleavage at the N-terminus of C-terminal cysteine. The forming isomeric acyclic ions serve as precursors for a series of b-type ions revealing sequence inside former disulfide cycle. The reaction is preferable for peptides with basic lysine residues inside the cycle. It may also be activated by acidic protons of Asp and Glu residues neighboring the loop. The observed cleavages may be quite competitive, revealing the sequence inside disulfide cycle, although S-S bond rupture does not occur in this case.

Resolving double disulfide bond patterns in SNAP25B using liquid chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry

Complex disulfide bond patterns in synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kD B (SNAP25B) are thought to regulate neurotransmitter release in response to oxidative stress. However, the steric feasibility of each possible disulfide pattern in SNAP25B has not been assessed. To assess the steric feasibility of hypothesized closely spaced complex disulfide patterning in SNAP25B and also the feasibility of identifying complex disulfide bond patterns with MS, we have developed a novel probabilistic analysis to unambiguously resolve complex double disulfide bond patterns by using an ion trap mass spectrometer. We analyzed fragmentation patterns of singly linked peptides to determine likely fragmentation events in an ion trap mass spectrometer and observed double and single backbone cleavage along with heterolytic cleavage of the disulfide bond. We modeled these same events in the doubly disulfide linked SNAP25B peptide and used a cumulative hypergeometric distribution with top-down scoring to both identify and differentiate these bonding patterns. Because of the presence of unique MS/MS peaks, two of the bonding patterns were directly identified. The third was assigned on the basis of full chromatographic separation and confirmed by modeling triple breakage fragments. In total, this work demonstrates the feasibility--and also limitations--of identification of complex intradisulfide patterns by using ion trap-based collision-induced dissociation-based fragmentation methods.

Disulfide reduction abolishes tissue factor cofactor function

BACKGROUND

Tissue factor (TF), an in vivo initiator of blood coagulation, is a transmembrane protein and has two disulfides in the extracellular domain. The integrity of one cysteine pair, Cys186-Cys209, has been hypothesized to be essential for an allosteric "decryption" phenomenon, presumably regulating TF procoagulant function, which has been the subject of a lengthy debate. The conclusions of published studies on this subject are based on indirect evidences obtained by the use of reagents with potentially oxidizing/reducing properties.

METHODS

The status of disulfides in recombinant TF1-263 and natural placental TF in their non-reduced native and reduced forms was determined by mass-spectrometry. Functional assays were performed to assess TF cofactor function.

RESULTS

In native proteins, all four cysteines of the extracellular domain of TF are oxidized. Reduced TF retains factor VIIa binding capacity but completely loses the cofactor function.

CONCLUSION

The reduction of TF disulfides (with or without alkylation) eliminates TF regulation of factor VIIa catalytic function in both membrane dependent FX activation and membrane independent synthetic substrate hydrolysis.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Results of this study advance our knowledge on TF structure/function relationships.

Does Electron Capture Dissociation Cleave Protein Disulfide Bonds?

Peptide and protein characterization by mass spectrometry (MS) relies on their dissociation in the gas phase into specific fragments whose mass values can be aligned as 'mass ladders' to provide sequence information and to localize possible post-translational modifications. The most common dissociation method involves slow heating of even-electron (M+nH) ⁿ⁺ ions from electrospray ionization by energetic collisions with inert gas, and cleavage of amide backbone bonds. More recently, dissociation methods based on electron capture or transfer were found to provide far more extensive sequence coverage through unselective cleavage of backbone N-Cα bonds. As another important feature of electron capture dissociation (ECD) and electron transfer dissociation (ETD), their unique unimolecular radical ion chemistry generally preserves labile posttranslational modifications such as glycosylation and phosphorylation. Moreover, it was postulated that disulfide bond cleavage is preferred over backbone cleavage, and that capture of a single electron can break both a backbone and a disulfide bond, or even two disulfide bonds between two peptide chains. However, the proposal of preferential disulfide bond cleavage in ECD or ETD has recently been debated. The experimental data presented here reveal that the mechanism of protein disulfide bond cleavage is much more intricate than previously anticipated.

Chasing cysteine oxidative modifications: proteomic tools for characterizing cysteine redox status

Redox-proteomics involves the large scale analysis of oxidative protein post-translational modifications. In particular, cysteine residues have become the subject of intensifying research interest because of their redox-reactive thiol side chain. Certain reactive cysteine residues can function as redox-switches, which sense changes in the local redox-environment by flipping between the reduced and oxidized state. Depending on the reactive oxygen or nitrogen species, cysteine residues can receive one of several oxidative modifications, each with the potential to confer a functional effect. Modification of these redox-switches has been found to play an important role in oxidative-signaling in the cardiovascular system and elsewhere. Due to the labile and dynamic nature of these modifications, several targeted approaches have been developed to enrich, identify and characterize the status of these critical residues. Here, we review the various proteomic strategies and limitations for the large scale analysis of the different oxidative cysteine modifications.

Application of MALDI TOF/TOF mass spectrometry and collision-induced dissociation for the identification of disulfide-bonded peptides

This paper describes a method for the fast identification and composition of disulfide-bonded peptides. A unique fragmentation signature of inter-disulfide-bonded peptides is detected using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) time-of-flight (TOF)/TOF mass spectrometry and high-energy collision-induced dissociation (CID). This fragmentation pattern identifies peptides with an interconnected disulfide bond and provides information regarding the composition of the peptides involved in the pairing. The distinctive signature produced using CID is a triplet of ions resulting from the cleavage of the disulfide bond to produce dehydroalanine, cysteine or thiocysteine product ions. This method is not applicable to intra-peptide disulfide bonds, as the cleavage mechanism is not the same and a triplet pattern is not observed. This method has been successfully applied to identifying disulfide-bonded peptides in a number of control digestions, as well as study samples where disulfide bond networks were postulated and/or unknown.

On-tissue identification of insulin: in situ reduction coupled with mass spectrometry imaging

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to use on-tissue reduction followed by MALDI-MS imaging (MSI) to identify an m/z 5812.85 peak, which is over-expressed in healthy human pancreatic tissue compared with type one Diabetes (T1D) tissue.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A major constraint of MALDI-MSI is identification of compounds with m/z ≥4000. On-tissue reduction using tris (2-carboxyethyl) phosphine (TCEP) breaks the inter-domain disulphide bonds generating low-molecular-weight peptides amenable to direct MS/MS analysis. Pancreatic tissues from healthy (n=4) and diabetic subjects (n=4) were profiled by MALDI-MSI with/without reduction.

RESULTS

On-tissue reduction resulted in the loss of the over-expressed 5812.85 m/z peak and the simultaneous appearance of a 3430.664 m/z peak in healthy tissues. The latter peak presumably derived from the 5812.85 m/z peak was identified as the insulin B chain by MS/MS. MALDI-MSI images show that both the 5812.85 insulin peak before reduction and the 3430.664 peak after reduction co-localized with the healthy pancreatic islets.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

On-tissue reduction followed by MALDI-MSI resulted in the identification of insulin and localization of pancreatic islets of langerhans. The approach will be useful in the future identification of novel therapeutic molecular targets to β-cells lost during type one diabetes.

Characterization and comparison of disulfide linkages and scrambling patterns in therapeutic monoclonal antibodies: using LC-MS with electron transfer dissociation

The disulfides in three monoclonal antibodies (mAb), the anti-HER2, anti-CD11a, and GLP-1 with IgG4-Fc fusion protein, were completely mapped by LC-MS with the combination of electron-transfer dissociation (ETD) and collision induced dissociation (CID) fragmentation. In addition to mapping the 4 inter- and 12 intrachain disulfides (total 16), the identification of scrambled disulfides in degraded samples (heat-stress) was achieved. The scrambling was likely attributed to an initial breakage between the light (Cys 214) and heavy (Cys 223) chains in anti-HER2, with the same observation found in a similar therapeutic mAb, anti-CD11a. On the other hand, the fusion antibody, with no light chain but containing only two heavy chains, generated much less scrambling under the same heat-stressed conditions. The preferred sites of scrambling were identified, such as the intrachain disulfide for CxxC in the heavy chain, and the C194 of the heavy chain pairing with the terminal Cys residue (C214) in the light chain. The interchain disulfides between the light and heavy chains were weaker than the interchain disulfides between the two heavy chains. The relative high abundance ions observed in ETD provided strong evidence for the linked peptide information, which was particularly useful for the identification of the scrambled disulfides. The use of sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) helped the separation of these misfolded proteins for the determination of scrambled disulfide linkages. This methodology is useful for comparison of disulfide stability generated from different structural designs and providing a new way to determine the scrambling patterns, which could be applied for those seeking to determine unknown disulfide linkages.

Induction and identification of disulfide-intact and disulfide-reduced β-subunit of Shiga toxin 2 from Escherichia coli O157:H7 using MALDI-TOF-TOF-MS/MS and top-down proteomics

The disulfide-intact and disulfide-reduced β-subunit of Shiga toxin 2 (β-Stx2) from Escherichia coli O157:H7 (strain EDL933) has been identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-TOF-MS/MS) and top-down proteomic analysis using software developed in-house. E. coli O157:H7 was induced to express Stx2 by culturing on solid agar media supplemented with 10-50 ng mL(-1) of ciprofloxacin (CP). Bacterial cell lysates at each CP concentration were analyzed by MALDI-TOF-MS. A prominent ion at mass-to-charge (m/z) ~7820 was observed for the CP concentration range: 10-50 ng mL(-1), reaching a maximum signal intensity at 20 ng mL(-1). Complex MS/MS data were obtained of the ion at m/z ~7820 by post-source decay resulting in top-down proteomic identification as the mature, signal peptide-removed, disulfide-intact β-Stx2. Eight fragment ion triplets (each spaced Δm/z ~33 apart) were also observed resulting from backbone cleavage between the two cysteine residues (that form the intra-molecular disulfide bond) and symmetric and asymmetric cleavage of the disulfide bond. The middle fragment ion of each triplet, from symmetric disulfide bond cleavage, was matched to an in silico fragment ion formed from cleavage of the backbone at a site adjacent to an aspartic acid or glutamic acid residue. The flanking fragment ions of each triplet, from asymmetric disulfide bond cleavage, were not matched because their corresponding in silico fragment ions are not represented in the database. Easier to interpret MS/MS data were obtained for the disulfide-reduced β-Stx2 which resulted in an improved top-down identification.

Studying disulfide bond rearrangement by MALDI-RTOF PSD and MALDI-TOF/RTOF high-energy CID (20 keV) experiments of peptides derived from ammodytoxins

Ammodytoxins (Atxs) are presynaptically neurotoxic phospholipases present in Vipera ammodytes ammodytes snake venom. Atxs show a high sequence homology and contain 14 cysteines which form seven biologically relevant disulfide bridges-connecting non-neighboring cysteines. Formic acid cleavage was performed to confirm protein sequences by MALDI RTOF MS and resulted in 95.6% sequence coverage exhibiting only few formylations. Cysteine-containing peptides showed adjacent signals 2 and/or 4 Da lower (according to the number of cysteines present in the peptide) than the theoretical molecular weight indicating disulfide bridge rearrangement. Post-source decay (PSD) and high-energy collision-induced dissociation (CID) at 20 keV experiments showed fragmentation pattern unique for the reduced, thiol group containing and the oxidized, disulfide bridge harboring peptides. Besides typical low-energy fragment ions observed during PSD experiments (a-, b-, y-type ions), additional high-energy fragment ions (c-, x-, w-, d-type and internal fragments) of significant intensity were generated during fragmentation at 20 keV. In the case of charge directing N- and C-termini, x- and w-type ions were also observed during PSD. Good and up to complete sequence coverage was achieved for all studied peptides from Atxs in the case of high-energy CID, whereas PSD lacked information particularly for larger peptides.

Identification, activity and disulfide connectivity of C-di-GMP regulating proteins in Mycobacterium tuberculosis

C-di-GMP, a bacterial second messenger plays a key role in survival and adaptation of bacteria under different environmental conditions. The level of c-di-GMP is regulated by two opposing activities, namely diguanylate cyclase (DGC) and phosphodiesterase (PDE-A) exhibited by GGDEF and EAL domain, respectively in the same protein. Previously, we reported a bifunctional GGDEF–EAL domain protein, MSDGC-1 from Mycobacterium smegmatis showing both these activities (Kumar and Chatterji, 2008). In this current report, we have identified and characterized the homologous protein from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Rv 1354c) named as MtbDGC. MtbDGC is also a bifunctional protein, which can synthesize and degrade c-di-GMP in vitro. Further we expressed Mtbdgc in M. smegmatis and it was able to complement the MSDGC-1 knock out strain by restoring the long term survival of M. smegmatis. Another protein Rv 1357c, named as MtbPDE, is an EAL domain protein and degrades c-di-GMP to pGpG in vitro. Rv1354c and 1357c have seven cysteine amino acids in their sequence, distributed along the full length of the protein. Disulfide bonds play an important role in stabilizing protein structure and regulating protein function. By proteolytic digestion and mass spectrometric analysis of MtbDGC, connectivity between cysteine pairs Cys⁹⁴-Cys⁵⁸⁴, Cys²-Cys⁴⁷⁹ and Cys⁴²⁹-Cys⁶¹⁴ was determined, whereas the third cysteine (Cys⁴⁰⁶) from N terminal was found to be free in MtbDGC protein, which was further confirmed by alkylation with iodoacetamide labeling. Bioinformatics modeling investigations also supported the pattern of disulfide connectivity obtained by Mass spectrometric analysis. Cys⁴⁰⁶ was mutated to serine by site directed mutagenesis and the mutant MtbC406S was not found to be active and was not able to synthesize or degrade c-di-GMP. The disulfide connectivity established here would help further in understanding the structure – function relationship in MtbDGC.

Gas-phase scrambling of disulfide bonds during matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry analysis

Evidence for photo-induced radical disulfide bond scrambling in the gas phase during matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) is described. The phenomenon was observed during the analysis of tryptic peptides from insulin and was confirmed in the determination of disulfide bonds in the rhamnose-binding lectin SEL24K from the Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. A possible mechanism for this surprising scrambling is proposed. Despite this finding, the disulfide bond pattern in SEL24K was assigned unambiguously by a multi-enzyme digestion strategy in combination with MALDI mass spectrometry. The pattern was found to be symmetrical in the tandem repeat sequence of SEL24K. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of disulfide bond scrambling in the gas phase during MALDI-MS analysis. This observation has important ramifications for unambiguous assignment of disulfide bonds.