1
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Citti C, Laganà A, Capriotti AL, Montone CM, Cannazza G. Kratom: The analytical challenge of an emerging herbal drug. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1703:464094. [PMID: 37262932 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa or kratom is emerging worldwide as a "legal" herbal drug of abuse. An increasing number of papers is appearing in the scientific literature regarding its pharmacological profile and the analysis of its chemical constituents, mainly represented by alkaloids. However, its detection and identification are not straightforward as the plant material is not particularly distinctive. Hyphenated techniques are generally preferred for the identification and quantification of these compounds, especially the main purported psychoactive substances, mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG), in raw and commercial products. Considering the vast popularity of this recreational drug and the growing concern about its safety, the analysis of alkaloids in biological specimens is also of great importance for forensic and toxicological laboratories. The review addresses the analytical aspects of kratom spanning the extraction techniques used to isolate the alkaloids, the qualitative and quantitative analytical methods and the strategies for the distinction of the naturally occurring isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce 73100, Italy.
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Carmela Maria Montone
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, Modena 41125, Italy.
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2
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Kamble SH, Berthold EC, Kanumuri SRR, King TI, Kuntz MA, León F, Mottinelli M, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR, Sharma A. Metabolism of Speciociliatine, an Overlooked Kratom Alkaloid for its Potential Pharmacological Effects. AAPS J 2022; 24:86. [PMID: 35854066 PMCID: PMC9932950 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-022-00736-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Speciociliatine, a diastereomer of mitragynine, is an indole-based alkaloid found in kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). Kratom has been widely used for the mitigation of pain and opioid dependence, as a mood enhancer, and/or as an energy booster. Speciociliatine is a partial µ-opioid agonist with a 3-fold higher binding affinity than mitragynine. Speciociliatine has been found to be a major circulating alkaloid in humans following oral administration of a kratom product. In this report, we have characterized the metabolism of speciociliatine in human and preclinical species (mouse, rat, dog, and cynomolgus monkey) liver microsomes and hepatocytes. Speciociliatine metabolized rapidly in monkey, rat, and mouse hepatocytes (in vitro half-life was 6.6 ± 0.2, 8.3 ± 1.1, 11.2 ± 0.7 min, respectively), while a slower metabolism was observed in human and dog hepatocytes (91.7 ± 12.8 and > 120 min, respectively). Speciociliatine underwent extensive metabolism, primarily through monooxidation and O-demethylation metabolic pathways in liver microsomes and hepatocytes across species. No human-specific or disproportionate metabolites of speciociliatine were found in human liver microsomes. The metabolism of speciociliatine was predominantly mediated by CYP3A4 with minor contributions by CYP2D6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam H. Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Erin C. Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Tamara I. King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Michelle A. Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Corresponding Author Abhisheak Sharma, M. Pharm., Ph.D., UF CTSI, Translational Drug Development Core, Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA. , Phone: 352-294-8690, Christopher R. McCurdy, Ph.D., FAAPS, UF CTSI, Translational Drug Development Core, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA. , Phone: 352-294-8691
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA. .,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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3
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Hanapi NA, Chear NJY, Azizi J, Yusof SR. Kratom Alkaloids: Interactions With Enzymes, Receptors, and Cellular Barriers. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:751656. [PMID: 34867362 PMCID: PMC8637859 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.751656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Parallel to the growing use of kratom, there is a wealth of evidence from self-report, preclinical, and early clinical studies on therapeutic benefits of its alkaloids in particular for treating pain, managing substance use disorder, and coping with emotional or mental health conditions. On the other hand, there are also reports on potential health risks concerning kratom use. These two aspects are often discussed in reviews on kratom. Here, we aim to highlight specific areas that are of importance to give insights into the mechanistic of kratom alkaloids pharmacological actions. This includes their interactions with drug-metabolizing enzymes and predictions of clinical drug-drug interactions, receptor-binding properties, interactions with cellular barriers in regards to barrier permeability, involvement of membrane transporters, and alteration of barrier function when exposed to the alkaloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Aziah Hanapi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | | | - Juzaili Azizi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Siti R Yusof
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
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Berthold EC, Kamble SH, Raju KS, King TI, Popa R, Sharma A, León F, Avery BA, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. Preclinical pharmacokinetic study of speciociliatine, a kratom alkaloid, in rats using an UPLC-MS/MS method. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 194:113778. [PMID: 33277117 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Speciociliatine is a minor indole alkaloid found in kratom, a southeast Asian medicinal plant, used for centuries to increase energy, enhance mood, and mitigate pain and opioid dependence. An ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated to quantify speciociliatine in rat plasma. The quantitation range was 3-600 ng/mL. The validated method was applied to a preclinical pharmacokinetic study in male Sprague-Dawley rats after 2.5 mg/kg intravenous (I.V.) and 20 mg/kg oral (P.O.) dosing. The plasma was analyzed to obtain concentration-time profiles and results were subjected to non-compartmental analysis to determine pharmacokinetic parameters including volume of distribution (6.2 ± 2.3 L/kg I.V.), clearance (0.7 ± 0.2 L/hr/kg), and absolute oral bioavailability (20.7 %). Speciociliatine had higher systemic exposure and lower clearance compared to the other kratom alkaloids mitragynine and corynantheidine. The speciociliatine pharmacokinetic parameters described here will help to better understand the overall effects reported with kratom product use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Kanumuri S Raju
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Raluca Popa
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Bonnie A Avery
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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5
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Basiliere S, Brower J, Winecker R, Friederich L, Kerrigan S. Identification of five mitragyna alkaloids in blood and tissues using liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Forensic Toxicol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-020-00537-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Basiliere S, Kerrigan S. Identification of metabolites and potential biomarkers of kratom in urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1140:121971. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.121971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Basiliere S, Kerrigan S. CYP450-Mediated Metabolism of Mitragynine and Investigation of Metabolites in Human Urine. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:301-313. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 10/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) has emerged as a recreational drug and a substance of medicinal intrigue. Although the drug was initially used recreationally for its sedating and euphoric effects, more recently its use has been associated with the non-medically supervised treatment of opioid abstinence syndrome. Mitragynine is the principal pharmacologically active alkaloid in kratom. Although metabolites of mitragynine have been identified, the cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes responsible for its biotransformation are still under investigation. The goal of this study was to contribute further knowledge regarding CYP450 activity as it relates to mitragynine. Recombinant cytochrome P450 enzymes (rCYPs) were used to investigate the isoforms involved in its metabolism. Biotransformational products were identified using liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight-mass spectrometry. Four rCYP enzymes (2C18, 2C19, 2D6 and 3A4) were found to contribute to the metabolism of mitragynine. 7-Hydroxymitragynine (which has an affinity for the mu-opioid receptor >10-folds that of morphine) was produced exclusively by 3A4. 9-O-demethylmitragynine, the most abundant metabolite in vitro (and the most prevalent metabolite in urine among kratom users) was produced by 2C19, 3A4 and 2D6. 16-Carboxymitragynine was produced by rCYPs 2D6, 2C19 and 2C18. 2C19 was solely responsible for the formation of 9-O-demethyl-16-carboxymitragynine. In vitro rCYP studies were compared with phase I metabolites in urine from cases involving mitragynine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Basiliere
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Box 2525, 1003 Bowers Blvd, Huntsville, TX 77341, USA
| | - Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Box 2525, 1003 Bowers Blvd, Huntsville, TX 77341, USA
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Meireles V, Rosado T, Barroso M, Soares S, Gonçalves J, Luís Â, Caramelo D, Simão AY, Fernández N, Duarte AP, Gallardo E. Mitragyna speciosa: Clinical, Toxicological Aspects and Analysis in Biological and Non-Biological Samples. MEDICINES 2019; 6:medicines6010035. [PMID: 30836609 PMCID: PMC6473843 DOI: 10.3390/medicines6010035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The abuse of psychotropic substances is a well-known phenomenon, and many of them are usually associated with ancestral traditions and home remedies. This is the case of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), a tropical tree used to improve work performance and to withstand great heat. According to several published studies, the main reasons for kratom consumption involve improving sexual performance and endurance, but also social and recreational uses for the feeling of happiness and euphoria; it is also used for medical purposes as a pain reliever, and in the treatment of diarrhea, fever, diabetes, and hypertension. However, this plant has gained more popularity amongst young people over the last years. Since it is available on the internet for purchase, its use is now widely as a drug of abuse, namely as a new psychoactive substance, being a cheaper alternative to opioids that does not require medical prescription in most countries. According to internet surveys by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction in 2008 and 2011, kratom was one of the most widely supplied new psychoactive substances. The composition of kratom is complex; in fact, more than 40 different alkaloids have been identified in Mitragyna speciosa so far, the major constituent being mitragynine, which is exclusive to this plant. Besides mitragynine, alkaloids such as corynantheidine and 7-hydroxamitragynine also present pharmacological effects, a feature that may be attributed to the remaining constituents as well. The main goal of this review is not only to understand the origin, chemistry, consumption, and analytical methodologies for analysis and mechanism of action, but also the use of secondary metabolites of kratom as therapeutic drugs and the assessment of potential risks associated with its consumption, in order to aid health professionals, toxicologists, and police authorities in cases where this plant is present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vânia Meireles
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Tiago Rosado
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses-Delegação do Sul, 1169-201 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Sofia Soares
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Joana Gonçalves
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Ângelo Luís
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Débora Caramelo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Ana Y Simão
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Nicolás Fernández
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Toxicología y Química Legal, Laboratorio de Asesoramiento Toxicológico Analítico (CENATOXA). Junín 956 7mo piso. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (CABA), Buenos Aires C1113AAD, Argentina.
| | - Ana Paula Duarte
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
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Basiliere S, Bryand K, Kerrigan S. Identification of five Mitragyna alkaloids in urine using liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2018; 1080:11-19. [PMID: 29459087 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) is a psychoactive plant that has recently emerged as a recreational drug. Mitragyna alkaloids are not within the scope of traditional forensic toxicology screening methods, which may contribute to under-reporting. Solid phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q/TOF-MS) were used to identify five alkaloids in urine. Target analytes included the two known psychoactive compounds, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, in addition to speciociliatine, speciogynine, and paynantheine. Two deuterated internal standards (mitragynine-D3 and 7-hydroxymitragynine-D3) were employed. Using traditional reversed phase chromatography all compounds and isomers were separated in 10 min. The procedure was validated in accordance with the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Toxicology (SWGTOX) Standard Practices for Method Validation. Extraction efficiencies were 63-96% and limits of quantitation were 0.5-1 ng/mL. Precision, bias and matrix effects were all within acceptable thresholds, with the exception of 7-hydroxymitragynine, which is notably unstable and unsuitable for quantitative analysis. In this paper we present a simultaneous quantitative analytical method for mitragynine, speciociliatine, speciogynine and paynantheine, and a qualitative assay for 7-hydroxymitragynine in urine using high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Basiliere
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77341, United States
| | - Kelsie Bryand
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77341, United States
| | - Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77341, United States.
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Fuenffinger N, Ritchie M, Ruth A, Gryniewicz-Ruzicka C. “Evaluation of ion mobility spectrometry for the detection of mitragynine in kratom products”. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2017; 134:282-286. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.11.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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11
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Multiple stage MS in analysis of plasma, serum, urine and in vitro samples relevant to clinical and forensic toxicology. Bioanalysis 2016; 8:457-81. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.16.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper reviews MS approaches applied to metabolism studies, structure elucidation and qualitative or quantitative screening of drugs (of abuse) and/or their metabolites. Applications in clinical and forensic toxicology were included using blood plasma or serum, urine, in vitro samples, liquids, solids or plant material. Techniques covered are liquid chromatography coupled to low-resolution and high-resolution multiple stage mass analyzers. Only PubMed listed studies published in English between January 2008 and January 2015 were considered. Approaches are discussed focusing on sample preparation and mass spectral settings. Comments on advantages and limitations of these techniques complete the review.
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Rapid detection by direct analysis in real time-mass spectrometry (DART-MS) of psychoactive plant drugs of abuse: The case of Mitragyna speciosa aka “Kratom”. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 242:210-218. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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13
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Dunphy MJ, Sysel AM, Lupica JA, Griffith K, Sherrod T, Bauer JA. A Stability-Indicating HPLC Method for the Determination of Nitrosylcobalamin (NO-Cbl), a Novel Vitamin B 12 Analog. Chromatographia 2014; 77:571-589. [PMID: 24855323 PMCID: PMC4024380 DOI: 10.1007/s10337-014-2645-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Nitrosylcobalamin (NO-Cbl), a novel vitamin B12 analog and anti-tumor agent, functions as a biologic 'Trojan horse', utilizing the vitamin B12 transcobalamin II transport protein and cell surface receptor to specifically target cancer cells. a stability-indicating HPLC method was developed for the detection of NO-Cbl during forced degradation studies. This method utilized an ascentis® RP-amide (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) column at 35 °C with a mobile phase (1.0 mL min-1) combining a gradient of methanol and an acetate buffer at pH 6.0. Detection wavelengths of 450 and 254 nm were used to detect corrin and non-corrin-based products, respectively. NO-Cbl, synthesized from hydroxocobalamin and pure nitric oxide gas, was subjected to degradative stress conditions including oxidation, hydrolysis and thermal and radiant energy challenge. The method was validated by assessing linearity, accuracy, precision, detection and quantitation limits and robustness. The method was applied successfully for purity assessment of synthesized NO-Cbl and for the determination of NO-Cbl during kinetic studies in aqueous solution and in solid-state degradation assessments. This HPLC method is suitable for the separation of cobalamins in aqueous and methanolic solutions, for routine detection of NO-Cbl and for purity assessment of synthesized NO-Cbl. additionally, this method has potential application in identification and monitoring of diseases involving altered nitric oxide homeostasis where vitamin B12 therapy is utilized to scavenge excess nitric oxide, subsequently resulting in the in vivo production of NO-Cbl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Dunphy
- BNOAT Oncology, Inc., akron Innovation Campus, 411 Wolf ledges Pkwy, Suite 105, akron, OH 44311, USA; Walsh University, 2020 East Maple St, north Canton, OH 44720, USA
| | - Annette M. Sysel
- BNOAT Oncology, Inc., akron Innovation Campus, 411 Wolf ledges Pkwy, Suite 105, akron, OH 44311, USA
| | - Joseph A. Lupica
- BNOAT Oncology, Inc., akron Innovation Campus, 411 Wolf ledges Pkwy, Suite 105, akron, OH 44311, USA; Walsh University, 2020 East Maple St, north Canton, OH 44720, USA
| | - Kristie Griffith
- Walsh University, 2020 East Maple St, north Canton, OH 44720, USA
| | - Taylor Sherrod
- Walsh University, 2020 East Maple St, north Canton, OH 44720, USA
| | - Joseph A. Bauer
- BNOAT Oncology, Inc., akron Innovation Campus, 411 Wolf ledges Pkwy, Suite 105, akron, OH 44311, USA
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15
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New challenges and innovation in forensic toxicology: Focus on the “New Psychoactive Substances”. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1287:84-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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16
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Le D, Goggin MM, Janis GC. Analysis of Mitragynine and Metabolites in Human Urine for Detecting the Use of the Psychoactive Plant Kratom. J Anal Toxicol 2012; 36:616-25. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bks073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Rosenbaum CD, Carreiro SP, Babu KM. Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. J Med Toxicol 2012; 8:15-32. [PMID: 22271566 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-011-0202-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite their widespread Internet availability and use, many of the new drugs of abuse remain unfamiliar to health care providers. The herbal marijuana alternatives, like K2 or Spice, are a group of herbal blends that contain a mixture of plant matter in addition to chemical grade synthetic cannabinoids. The synthetic cathinones, commonly called "bath salts," have resulted in nationwide emergency department visits for severe agitation, sympathomimetic toxicity, and death. Kratom, a plant product derived from Mitragyna speciosa Korth, has opioid-like effects, and has been used for the treatment of chronic pain and amelioration of opioid-withdrawal symptoms. Salvia divinorum is a hallucinogen with unique pharmacology that has therapeutic potential but has been banned in many states due to concerns regarding its psychiatric effects. Methoxetamine has recently become available via the Internet and is marked as "legal ketamine." Moreover, the piperazine derivatives, a class of amphetamine-like compounds that includes BZP and TMFPP, are making a resurgence as "legal Ecstasy." These psychoactives are available via the Internet, frequently legal, and often perceived as safe by the public. Unfortunately, these drugs often have adverse effects, which range from minimal to life-threatening. Health care providers must be familiar with these important new classes of drugs. This paper discusses the background, pharmacology, clinical effects, detection, and management of synthetic cannabinoid, synthetic cathinone, methoxetamine, and piperazine exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Rosenbaum
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, USA
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Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Current applications of high-resolution mass spectrometry in drug metabolism studies. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:1221-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5807-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 01/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Current status of hyphenated mass spectrometry in studies of the metabolism of drugs of abuse, including doping agents. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 402:195-208. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Drugs of abuse screening in urine as part of a metabolite-based LC-MSn screening concept. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:3481-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5032-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/15/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Metabolism studies of the Kratom alkaloids mitraciliatine and isopaynantheine, diastereomers of the main alkaloids mitragynine and paynantheine, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:1049-55. [PMID: 21450536 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), native in Southeast Asia, is increasingly misused as a herbal drug of abuse. During metabolism studies on the Kratom alkaloids mitragynine, its diastereomers speciogynine and speciociliatine as well as paynantheine in rats and humans, further isomeric compounds were detected in Kratom users' urine. The question arose whether these compounds were formed from the low abundant, isomeric alkaloids mitraciliatine (MC) and isopaynantheine (ISO-PAY). Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to identify using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry their phase I and II metabolites in rat urine after administration of pure MC or ISO-PAY, to confirm their formation in humans, and finally to confirm whether the above-mentioned isomeric compounds in human urine represent MC and ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The metabolic pathways of both alkaloids in rats were found to be comparable to those of their corresponding diastereomers. In the human urines tested, not all metabolites found in rats could be detected because of the much lower amounts of MC and ISO-PAY in Kratom. However, all the above-mentioned so far unknown isomeric compounds could be identified in the human urine samples as MC, ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The used LC separation was also suitable for the differentiation of all other Kratom alkaloids and their metabolites in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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