Simultaneous determination of albendazole and its metabolites in fish muscle tissue by stable isotope dilution ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

The short-term toxicity and metabolome of Benzene

A 14-day rat study with plasma metabolomics was conducted to evaluate the toxicity of Benzene. Wistar rats were orally administered Benzene daily at doses of 0, 300 and 1000 mg/kg bw. The study identified liver and kidneys as target organs of Benzene toxicity and found reductions in total white blood cells, absolute lymphocyte and eosinophil cell counts, and increased relative monocyte counts suggesting bone marrow as a target organ. The study also confirmed liver as a target organ using metabolomics, which showed indications of a stress reaction in rats and changes in metabolites suggestive of a metabolic disorder. The metabolomics investigations did not find any other toxicologically relevant modes of action, and the observed metabolite changes were not associated with markers for mitochondrial dysfunction. The study concludes that integration of omics technologies, such as metabolomics, in regulatory toxicity studies is possible, confirms existing knowledge and adds additional information that can be used for mechanistic understanding of observed toxicity.

The short-term toxicity and metabolome of dicyclopentadiene

Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) was investigated in a 14-day oral rat toxicity study based on the OECD 407 guideline in combination with plasma metabolomics. Wistar rats received the compound daily via gavage at dose levels of 0, 50 and 150 mg/kg bw. The high dose induced transient clinical signs of toxicity and in males only reduced body weight gain. High dose liver changes were characterized by altered clinical chemistry parameters in both sexes and pathological changes in females. In high dose males an accumulation of alpha-2 u-globulin in the kidney was noted. Comparing the DCPD metabolome with previously established specific metabolome patterns in the MetaMap® Tox data base suggested that the high dose would result in liver enzyme induction leading to increased breakdown of thyroid hormones for males and females. An indication for liver toxicity in males was also noted. Metabolomics also suggested an effect on the functionality of the adrenals in high dose males, which together with published data, is suggestive of a stress related effect in this organ. The results of the present 14-day combined toxicity and metabolome investigations were qualitatively in line with literature data from subchronic oral studies in rats with DCPD. Importantly no other types of organ toxicity, or hormone dysregulation beyond the ones associated with liver enzyme induction and stress were indicated, again in line with results of published 90-day studies. It is therefore suggested that short term "smart" studies, combining classical toxicity with 'omics technologies, could be a 2 R (refine and reduce) new approach method allowing for the reduction of in vivo toxicity testing.

Residual behavior and dietary risk assessment of albendazole as fungicide in citrus orchards

Albendazole is a broad-spectrum fungicide that shows great potential in controlling fungal diseases in citrus. To quantify the dissipation behavior, residue distribution, and dietary risk of albendazole in citrus, we developed an UPLC-MS/MS analysis protocol. The average recovery rate of albendazole in whole citrus and citrus pulp ranged from 74 to 105% with an RSD of 3 to 8%, and a limit of quantification of 0.01 mg kg^-1. The degradation half-lives were 2.8-3.0 and 5.7-17.0 days in whole citrus and citrus pulp, respectively, and the final residues of albendazole were <0.059 mg kg^-1 with a risk quotient of <1. This study not only demonstrates that the dietary risk of albendazole in citrus is negligible, but also provides empirical data to establish the maximum residual limit (MRL) for the safe application of albendazole in citrus orchards to meet the requirements for food safety as well as international trade.

An Electrochemical Sensor for the Detection of Albendazole Using Glassy Carbon Electrode Modified with Platinum-Palladium Nanocomposites

An electroanalytical electrode for the detection of albendazole (ABZ) active ingredient in pharmaceutical dosage form and in contaminated animal-derived products was developed using a glassy carbon electrode modified with platinum-palladium nanoparticles. The electro-catalytic performance of the bimetallic-modified glassy carbon electrode was compared with its bare counterpart. Under optimized conditions, the modified electrode revealed two well-resolved anodic peak currents at 1.10 and 1.23 V using differential pulse voltammetry. Pure ABZ, as well as ABZ in spiked foods (milk and chicken), were detected with little interference from the food matrix. This electrode demonstrated high sensitivity and applicability, with a lower limit of detection of 0.08 µmol L^-1 in aqueous solution and 10 µmol L^-1 in the contaminated ground chicken and 100 µmol L^-1 in the contaminated milk sample. The fabricated sensor is low in cost and appropriate for the estimation of albendazole in tablet dosage forms and biological samples, and so can act as a quality control tool in the pharmaceutical and food industry.

Depletion study and estimation of the withdrawal period for albendazole in tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) parasitised by acanthocephalan (Neoechinorhynchus buttnerae) treated with albendazole-containing feed

This study provides the first data related to albendazole (ABZ) and its main metabolites [albendazole sulphoxide (ABZSO), albendazole sulphone (ABZSO₂), and albendazole-2-amino sulphone (ABZ-2-NH₂-SO₂)] residue depletion in tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) parasitised by acanthocephalan (Neoechinorhynchus buttnerae). The ABZ withdrawal period was also calculated. The fish received a daily dose of 10 mg ABZ kg^-1 body weight (b.w.) via medicated feed for 34 days. Samples of target tissue (muscle plus skin in natural proportions) were collected 24, 48, 72, 120, 168, 240, and 336 h after the end of ABZ administration. The quantitation of ABZ residues and its metabolites in the target tissue was performed using a validated ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) analytical method. After treatment, ABZ in the target tissue was rapidly metabolised over time, and ABZSO was the most persistent metabolite and was shown to be at the highest levels in the target tissue. Considering the maximum residue limit (MRL) established by Codex Alimentarius in the muscle (100 μg kg^-1, species not specified), a withdrawal period of 4 days (112 °C-day) was estimated for the total residue (sum of ABZ and its metabolite residues). Considering data reported in the literature and data obtained in this study, it is suggested that the total residue be considered as marker residue to be adopted for fish in the legislative framework.

Design of experiments applied to stress testing of pharmaceutical products: A case study of Albendazole

Forced degradation tests are studies used to assess the stability of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their formulations. These tests are performed submitting the API under extreme conditions in order to know the main degradation products in a short period of time. The results of these studies are used to assess the degradation susceptibility of APIs and to validate chromatographic analytical methods. However, most of degradation studies are performed using one-factor-at-the-time (OFAT) which does not consider the interactions between degradation variables. This work proposes the use of Design of Experiment (DoE) approach in forced degradation of albendazole (ABZ). It was used a central composite design (CCD) to evaluate the forced degradation in a multivariate way. Experiments were performed taking into account the variables pH, temperature, oxidizing agent (H₂O₂) and UV radiation. It was verified the influence of the variables and their interactions on the ABZ degradation. The ABZ oxidation showed to be the main degradation route for ABZ, which is strongly influenced by the temperature. The hydrolysis was relevant at alkaline medium and high temperature. LC-IT-MSⁿ was used to identify the degradation products. It was found three known degradation products (albendazole-2-amino, albendazole sulfoxide and albendazole sulfone) and a new derivate of albendazole molecule (albendazole sulfoxide with a chlorine). This last one was isolated and characterized by UPLC-QToF-MS and NMR analyses.

Pretreatment and determination methods for benzimidazoles: An update since 2005

Benzimidazoles, commonly used as pesticides and veterinary drugs, have posed a threat to human health and the environment due to unreasonable use and lack of valid regulation. Therefore, an up-to-date and comprehensive summary of the pretreatment and analytical approaches in different substrates is urgently needed. The present review consequently updates and covers various newly developed pretreatment methods (e.g., cationic micellar precipitation, magnetic-solid phase extraction, hollow fiber liquid phase microextraction, disperse liquid-liquid microextraction-solidified floating organic drop, stir cake sorptive extraction, solid phase microextraction method, QuEChERS, and molecular imprinted polymer-based methods) since 2005. The review also elaborates and discusses different determination methods (e.g., newly developed HPLC and related methods, improved spectrofluorimetry methods, capillary electrophoresis, and the electrochemical sensor). Furthermore, some critical points and prospects are highlighted, to describe the trends in this area.

Focused ultrasound-based extraction for target analysis and suspect screening of organic xenobiotics in fish muscle

The development of multitarget and/or suspect screening methods for the analysis of xenobiotics in fish samples is compulsory due to the lack of works in the literature where a deep evaluation of the variables affecting extraction and clean-up steps is performed. The aim of the present work was to optimize and validate a multitarget (180 compounds) method for the analysis of priority and emerging xenobiotics in fish muscle using focused ultrasound-assisted solid-liquid extraction. From the different extraction solvents studied, a single extraction in cold acetonitrile rendered the best consensus results in terms of absolute recoveries and the number of target compounds extracted. Matrix effect was minimized using commercially available Captiva ND-Lipid filters, which provided clean extracts and satisfactory repeatability compared to other approaches. Absolute recoveries were corrected using matrix-matched calibration and apparent recoveries in the 43%-105%, 73%-131% and 78%-128% ranges were obtained at low (20 ng g^-1), medium (100 ng g^-1), and high (200 ng g^-1) spiking levels, respectively. A 60% of the xenobiotics showed limits of identification lower than 20 ng g^-1. The developed method was successfully applied to the quantification and suspect screening of samples bought in a local market (hake, gilt-head bream, sea bass and prawn) and fished (thicklip grey mullet) at the Urdaibai estuary (north of Spain). Food additives, antiparasitic drugs and PFOS were quantified at ng g^-1 level. Moreover, the targeted method was extended to the suspect screening, revealing the presence of plastic related products (caprolactam, phthalates, polyethylenglycols), pharmaceutical products (albendazole, mebendazole, valpromide) and pesticides or insect repellents (icaridin, myristyl sulfate, nootkatone). Therefore, FUSLE in cold acetonitrile combined with Captiva ND-Lipid filters and liquid chromatography tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-q-Orbitrap) were successfully applied to both multitarget quantitative analysis and suspect screening of approx. 17,800 compounds.

Determination of 19 anthelmintics in environmental water and sediment using an optimized PLE and SPE method coupled with UHPLC-MS/MS

A sensitive quantification method using pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and solid phase extraction (SPE) coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed for determination of 19 anthelmintic drugs (ADs) belonging to seven structural groups (Benzimidazoles, Diphenylsulfides, Imidazothiazoles, Hexahydropyrazines, Macrocylic lactones, Salicylanilides, Tetrahydropyrimidines) in environmental water and sediment samples. Eleven SPE cartridges, sample pH, elution solvents were tested to determine the optimal conditions for extraction. Among these investigated SPE types, the best recoveries for 19 target ADs were obtained from Oasis HLB cartridge with 37-102%, 45-103%, 37-88%, 28-82% and 31-90% for spiked river water, tap water, rainwater, wastewater, and sediment respectively (with RSD < 15%), except for closantel. The 19 ADs were separated within 10 min by a BEH C18 column and monitored in both positive and negative ions modes with switching electrospray ionization source. The cross-talk interferences were solved by identification of secondary mass spectrum of substances through MRM-IDA-EPI scanning using Qtrap. These interference peaks could be efficiently eliminated by setting MRM segments or using Qtrap to obtain tertiary fragmented information. The developed methods were satisfactory in terms of linearity, accuracy, and precision, and used eight isotopically labeled compounds as internal standards to correct matrix effects. Method quantification limit (MQL) for 19 ADs was below 1.1 ng/L, 0.4 ng/L, 5.4 ng/L and 2.3 ng/g for river water, tap water, wastewater, and sediment, respectively. The validated method was successfully used to investigate the occurrence of anthelmintics in water and sediment samples from Chengdu, China. All ADs were detected in environment with the concentrations at ng/L level.

Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution study of liposomal albendazole in naturally Echinococcus granulosus infected sheep by a validated UPLC-Q-TOF-MS method

Albendazole (ABZ) is the first-line drug in treating echinococcosis, which is recommended by WHO. To address the poor bioavailability of albendazole, liposomal albendazole was formulated and is available in our hospital for many years. In this study, a sensitive, reliable and accurate UPLC-Q-TOF-MS method was developed and validated for the determination of albendazole and its metabolites, albendazole sulfoxide (ABZSO), albendazole sulfone (ABZSO₂) and albendazole-2-aminosulfone (ABZSO₂NH₂) in naturally echinococcus granulosus (E. granulosus) infected sheep plasma and tissues with mebendazole (MBZ) as the internal standard (IS). Plasma and tissues samples were prepared by protein precipitation method. The separation was performed on an ACQUITY UPLC® BEH C18 column (2.1 × 50 mm, 1.7 μm) with a gradient mobile phase consisting of methanol and water containing 0.1% formic acid at 0.4 mL/min. The detection was performed on a quadrupole time-of-flight (Q-TOF) high-resolution mass spectrometer using positive electrospray ionization (ESI) source with a chromatographic run time of 6.0 min. The detection was operated using target ions of [M + H]⁺ at m/z 266.096 for ABZ, m/z 282.091 for ABZSO, m/z 298.086 for ABZSO₂, m/z 240.081 for ABZSO₂NH₂ and m/z 296.104 for IS in selective ion mode, respectively. This method was validated in terms of selectivity, linearity, precision, accuracy, recovery, matrix effect, dilution effect, carryover effects, stability, calibration curve and LLOQ. All validation parameter results were within the acceptable range described in guideline for bioanalytical method validation. This method has been successfully applied to the pharmacokinetic study following single and multiple oral dose of 10 mg/kg liposomal albendazole, and tissue distribution study following multiple oral dose of 10 mg/kg, with emulsion albendazole as the reference preparation. The results in the article will provide valuable information for use in clinical applications of liposomal albendazole and also be beneficial for further development of liposomal albendazole in future studies.

Preparation of a chemiluminescence sensor for multi-detection of benzimidazoles in meat based on molecularly imprinted polymer

In this study, a molecularly imprinted polymer capable of recognizing 8 benzimidazoles was first synthesized. The computation simulation showed that the shape and size of used template were the main factors influencing its recognition ability. Then the polymer was used as recognition reagent to prepare a chemiluminescence sensor on conventional 96-well microplate. The sample solution and a HRP-labeled hapten were added into the microplate wells to perform competitive binding, and the light signal was initiated with 4-(imidazol-1-yl)phenol enhanced luminol-H₂O₂ system. The optimized sensor was used to determine the residues of 8 benzimidazoles in mutton and beef. Result showed that the sensor achieved ultrahigh sensitivity (limits of detection of 1.5-21 pg/mL), rapid assay process (18 min) and satisfactory recovery (65.8%-91.2%). Furthermore, this sensor could be reused for 4 times. Therefore, this sensor could be used as a rapid, simple, sensitive and durable tool for screening the residual benzimidazoles in meat.

LC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of diethylcarbamazine, albendazole and albendazole metabolites in human plasma: Application to a clinical pharmacokinetic study

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The first LC–MS/MS method of diethylcarbamazine and albendazole along with its active metabolites.

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The method was successfully applied to analyze clinical samples.

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The highly sensitive and selective LC–MS/MS method for routine pharmacokinetic application.

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This method is useful for drug–drug interaction or TDM studies of diethylcarbamazine and albendazole in Lymphatic filariasis therapy.

Combination therapy with anti-filarial drugs is now widely used for treatment of lymphatic filariasis. A rapid, selective, and sensitive liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method was developed and validated for simultaneous quantitation of diethylcarbamazine (DEC), albendazole (ABZ) and albendazole metabolites in human plasma. Separation and detection of analytes were achieved on a reversed phase column (Acquity UPLC^®BEH C18 column (100 × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) with gradient elution using 0.05% formic acid in methanol and 0.05% formic acid as mobile phase. Solid phase extraction was utilized for elution of analytes from the matrix. Thereafter, analytes were monitored by using MS/MS with electrospray ionization source in positive multiple reaction monitoring mode. The MS/MS response was linear over the concentration range from 0.1–200 ng/mL for ABZ and ABZ-ON, 0.5–1000 ng/mL for ABZ-OX and 1–2000 ng/mL for DEC with a correlation coefficient (r²) of 0.998 or better. The within- and between-batch precisions (relative standard deviation, % RSD) and the accuracy (% bias) were within the acceptable limits as per FDA guideline. The validated method was successfully applied to the clinical pharmacokinetic study. Due to high sensitivity and low requirement of sample volume, the method will be applicable for therapeutic drug monitoring of this regimen.

Veterinary drugs residues: a review of the latest analytical research on sample preparation and LC-MS based methods

The world population is increasing and there is a growing demand for food, leading to intensification of farming methods and a requirement for more coadjuvants. Potential high profits sometimes lead to fraudulent use of drugs and pesticides. Veterinary drugs in particular can pose a real risk to human health if their residues are allowed to enter the food chain. Parent drugs and their metabolites can occur in foodstuffs individually or as multicomponent mixtures with enhanced adverse effects. In order to protect consumer safety, the European Union has established lists of forbidden substances, maximum residue limits for authorised drugs and precise criteria for confirmation analyses and interpretation of the results. Due to their nature and potential danger, the 'best available technique' should always be applied. Following this principle, this review examines the procedures and techniques applied to monitoring pharmaceutical products of major concern (e.g. anthelmintics, NSAIDs, corticosteroids, coccidiostats) in foods of animal origin, discussing advances over the past five years and future trends in the field of food safety. Our goal was both to focus attention on this important topic and to provide a selection of the most relevant recent papers on drug residues in foodstuffs.

Liquid chromatography--tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous determination of albendazole and albendazole sulfoxide in human plasma for bioequivalence studies

An improved high performance liquid chromatography--tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method has been developed for sensitive and rapid determination of albendazole (ABZ) and its active metabolite, albendazole sulfoxide (ABZSO), in the positive ionization mode. The method utilized solid phase extraction (SPE) for sample preparation of the analytes and their deuterated internal standards (ISs) from 100 µL human plasma. The chromatography was carried out on Hypurity C₁₈ column using acetonitrile-2.0 mM ammonium acetate, pH 5.0 (80:20, v/v) as the mobile phase. The assay exhibited a linear response over the concentration range of 0.200–50.0 ng/mL for ABZ and 3.00–600 ng/mL for ABZSO. The recoveries of the analytes and ISs ranged from 86.03%–89.66% and 89.85%–98.94%, respectively. Matrix effect, expressed as IS-normalized matrix factors, ranged from 0.985 to 1.042 for the both analytes. The method was successfully applied for two separate studies in healthy subjects using single dose of 400 mg conventional tablets and 400 mg chewable ABZ tablets, respectively.

Mass spectrometry-based metabolomics to elucidate functions in marine organisms and ecosystems

Marine systems are very diverse and recognized as being sources of a wide range of biomolecules. This review provides an overview of metabolite profiling based on mass spectrometry (MS) approaches in marine organisms and their environments, focusing on recent advances in the field. We also point out some of the technical challenges that need to be overcome in order to increase applications of metabolomics in marine systems, including extraction of chemical compounds from different matrices and data management. Metabolites being important links between genotype and phenotype, we describe added value provided by integration of data from metabolite profiling with other layers of omics, as well as their importance for the development of systems biology approaches in marine systems to study several biological processes, and to analyze interactions between organisms within communities. The growing importance of MS-based metabolomics in chemical ecology studies in marine ecosystems is also illustrated.