Determination of type A trichothecenes in coix seed by magnetic solid-phase extraction based on magnetic multi-walled carbon nanotubes coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Research on Coix seed as a food and medicinal resource, it's chemical components and their pharmacological activities: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Romanet du Caillaud) Stapf is a plant of the genus Coix in the Gramineae family. Coix seed is cultivated in various regions throughout China. In recent years, with the research on the medicinal value of Coix seed, it has received more and more widespread attention from people. Numerous pharmacological effects of Coix seed have been demonstrated through modern pharmacological studies, such as hypoglycemia, improving liver function, anti-tumor, regulating intestinal microbiota, improving spleen function, and anti-inflammatory effects.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This article is a literature review. In recent years, despite the extensive research on Coix seed, there has yet to be a comprehensive review of its traditional usage, medicinal resources, chemical components, and pharmacological effects is still lacking. To fill this gap, the paper provides an overview of the latest research progress on Coix seed, aiming to offer guidance and references for its further development and comprehensive utilization.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

To gather information on the traditional usage, phytochemical ingredients, and pharmacological properties of Coix seed, we conducted a literature search using both Chinese and English languages in five databases: PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Springer.

RESULTS

This article is a literature review. The chemical constituents of Coix seed include various fatty acids, esters, polysaccharides, sterols, alkaloids, triterpenes, tocopherols, lactams, lignans, phenols, flavonoids and other constituents. Modern pharmacological research has indeed shown that Coix seed has many pharmacological effects and is a natural anti-tumor drug. In addition to its anti-tumor effect, it also has pharmacological effects such as hypoglycemia, improving liver function, regulating intestinal microbiota, improving spleen function, and anti-inflammatory effects.

CONCLUSIONS

This article provides a brief overview of the traditional uses, biotechnological applications, chemical components, and pharmacological effects of Coix seed. It highlights the importance of establishing quality standards, discovering new active ingredients, and exploring pharmacological mechanisms in Coix seed research. The article also emphasizes the significance of clinical trials, toxicology studies, pharmacokinetics data, and multidisciplinary collaboration for further advancements in this field. Overall, it aims to enhance understanding of Coix seed and its potential in pharmaceutical development and wellness products.

Strategies to control mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination by nano-semiconductor in food and agro-food: a review

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites generated from toxigenic fungi in the contaminated food and agro-food, which have been regarded as a serious threat to the food safety and human health. Therefore, the control of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination is of great significance and has attracted the increasing attention of researchers. As we know, nano-semiconductors have many unique properties such as large surface area, structural stability, good biocompatibility, excellent photoelectrical properties, and low cost, which have been developed and applied in many research fields. Recently, nano-semiconductors have also been promisingly applied in mitigating or controlling mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contaminations in food and agro-food. In this review, the type, occurrence, and toxicity of main mycotoxins in food and agro-food were introduced. Then, a variety of strategies to mitigate the mycotoxin contamination based on nano-semiconductors involving mycotoxins detection, inhibition of toxigenic fungi, and mycotoxins degradation were summarized. Finally, the outlook, opportunities, and challenges have prospected in the future for the mitigation of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi based on nano-semiconductors.

Solid-phase extraction techniques based on nanomaterials for mycotoxin analysis: An overview for food and agricultural products

Mycotoxin contamination is a globally concerned problem for food and agricultural products since it may directly or indirectly induce severe threats to human health. Sensitive and selective screening is an efficient strategy to prevent or reduce human and animal exposure to mycotoxins. However, enormous challenges exist in the determination of mycotoxins, arising from complex sample matrices, trace-level analytes, and the co-occurrence of diverse mycotoxins. Appropriate sample preparation is essential to isolate, purify, and enrich mycotoxins from complicated matrices, thus decreasing sample matrix effects and lowering detection limits. With the cross-disciplinary development, new solid-phase extraction strategies have been exploited and integrated with nanotechnology to meet the challenges of mycotoxin analysis. This review summarizes the advance and progress of solid-phase extraction techniques as the methodological solutions for mycotoxin analysis. Emphases are paid on nanomaterials fabricated as trapping media of SPE techniques, including carbonaceous nanoparticles, metal/metal oxide-based nanoparticles, and nanoporous materials. Advantages and limitations are discussed, along with the potential prospects. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The Existing Methods and Novel Approaches in Mycotoxins' Detection

Mycotoxins represent a wide range of secondary, naturally occurring and practically unavoidable fungal metabolites. They contaminate various agricultural commodities like cereals, maize, peanuts, fruits, and feed at any stage in pre- or post-harvest conditions. Consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed can cause acute or chronic toxicity in human and animals. The risk that is posed to public health have prompted the need to develop methods of analysis and detection of mycotoxins in food products. Mycotoxins wide range of structural diversity, high chemical stability, and low concentrations in tested samples require robust, effective, and comprehensible detection methods. This review summarizes current methods, such as chromatographic and immunochemical techniques, as well as novel, alternative approaches like biosensors, electronic noses, or molecularly imprinted polymers that have been successfully applied in detection and identification of various mycotoxins in food commodities. In order to highlight the significance of sampling and sample treatment in the analytical process, these steps have been comprehensively described.

Determination of 1-methylcyclopropene residues in vegetables and fruits based on iodine derivatives

An innovative method was established for the determination of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) in vegetables and fruits. Due to its small molecular weight and low boiling point, it was difficult to obtain quantitative analysis for 1-MCP, especially at the residual level. In this work, based on its iodine derivatives, 1-MCP was derived to 1,2-diiodo-1-methylcyclopropane, which was much easier for trace and accurate chromatographic analysis. During the method validation, the method validation results were satisfactory in terms of linearity (4 ~ 400 µg/L, and R² ≥ 0.959), matrix effect (-89% ~ -13%), accuracy (80 ~ 100%), sensitivity (limits of quantification, 5 μg/kg) and precision (relative standard deviations ≤ 19%), which was in accordance with the Chinese guidelines for the testing of pesticide residues in crops. Finally, the proposed analytical method was used to monitor the 1-MCP residue levels in commercially available samples, and all the values were below 5 µg/kg, which satisfied the EU or Japan MRLs of 1-MCP.

Determination of Differentiating Markers in Coicis Semen From Multi-Sources Based on Structural Similarity Classification Coupled With UPCC-Xevo G2-XS QTOF

Coicis semen, a medicinal food, is derived from the dried and mature seeds of Coix lacryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen (Rom.Caill.) Stapf, a member of the Gramineae family. Lipids are its main constituents. Previous literature reported that coicis semen contains twenty triglycerides and twelve diglycerides. However, we identified thirty-five triglycerides, sixteen diglycerides, four monoglycerides, and two sterols under the preoptimized conditions of UPCC-Xevo G2-XS QTOF combined with a personalized TCM database. Furthermore, we successfully determined glycerol trioleate content to evaluate quality differences. Finally, we identified the fatty acid compositions of seven out of nine differential markers via Progenesis QI using principal component analysis, orthogonal projection to latent structures–discriminant analysis, and the LipidMaps database. In addition, we applied a software-based classification, a method that was previously developed by our team, to verify and predict structurally similar compounds. Our findings confirmed that UPCC-Xevo G2-XS QTOF combined with software-based group classification could be used as an efficient method for exploring the potential lipid markers of seed medicine.

Development and validation of a rapid and efficient method for simultaneous determination of mycotoxins in coix seed using one-step extraction and UHPLC-HRMS

Coix seed is an important food and traditional Chinese medicine in China and other Asian countries. Notably, coix seed is currently being used as a traditional medicine for the treatment of COVID-19 in China. However, coix seeds are generally contaminated by mycotoxins, and this risk cannot be ignored. In this paper, we developed a method that involves direct extraction and UHPLC-HRMS analysis for the simultaneous detection of 24 mycotoxins in coix seeds. UHPLC-HRMS instrument and data acquisition parameters, and the sample pretreatment were optimised. One-step extraction showed several advantages compared to the three commercial solid-phase extraction clean-up methods, including ease of use, reduced time of sample preparation, low cost, good recovery, and acceptable matrix effect. The method validation results indicate that all mycotoxins have good linearity and sensitivity. Recoveries were between 74.2-101.1%, and RSD ranged from 0.1-5.8%. The LOQs for 24 mycotoxins were in the range of 0.5-100 µg/kg. To survey the contamination levels of these mycotoxins in commercial coix seeds, more than 70 samples were collected from Chinese markets and were analysed using the newly developed method. Zearalenone (positive ratio: 98.7%, range:1.1-1562 µg/kg), deoxynivalenol (positive ratio: 87%, range: 8.4-382.5 µg/kg), nivalenol (positive ratio: 85.7%, range: 26.8-828.2 µg/kg), fumonisin B₁ (positive ratio: 84.4%, range:2.5-314.5 µg/kg), fumonisin B₂ (positive ratio: 75.3%, range:1.6-72.8 µg/kg), fumonisin B₃ (positive ratio: 48%, range:1.0-203.6 µg/kg), aflatoxin B₁ (positive ratio: 29.9%, range: 0.39-14.7 µg/kg), sterigmatocystin (positive ratio: 29.9%, range: 1.4-51.6 µg/kg), and tenuazonic acid (positive ratio: 19.5%, range 36.1-105.7 µg/kg) were the most frequent mycotoxin contaminants. These results highlight the importance of routine monitoring and control of mycotoxins in coix seeds.

An update on T-2 toxin and its modified forms: metabolism, immunotoxicity mechanism, and human exposure assessment

T-2 toxin is the most toxic trichothecene mycotoxin, and it exerts potent toxic effects, including immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity. Recently, several novel metabolites, including 3',4'-dihydroxy-T-2 toxin and 4',4'-dihydroxy-T-2 toxin, have been uncovered. The enzymes CYP3A4 and carboxylesterase contribute to T-2 toxin metabolism, with 3'-hydroxy-T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin as the corresponding primary products. Modified forms of T-2 toxin, including T-2-3-glucoside, exert their immunotoxic effects by signaling through JAK/STAT but not MAPK. T-2-3-glucoside results from hydrolyzation of the corresponding parent mycotoxin and other metabolites by the intestinal microbiota, which leads to enhanced toxicity. Increasing evidence has shown that autophagy, hypoxia-inducible factors, and exosomes are involved in T-2 toxin-induced immunotoxicity. Autophagy promotes the immunosuppression induced by T-2 toxin, and a complex crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy exists. Very recently, "immune evasion" activity was reported to be associated with this toxin; this activity is initiated inside cells and allows pathogens to escape the host immune response. Moreover, T-2 toxin has the potential to trigger hypoxia in cells, which is related to activation of hypoxia-inducible factor and the release of exosomes, leading to immunotoxicity. Based on the data from a series of human exposure studies, free T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and HT-2-4-glucuronide should be considered human T-2 toxin biomarkers in the urine. The present review focuses on novel findings related to the metabolism, immunotoxicity, and human exposure assessment of T-2 toxin and its modified forms. In particular, the immunotoxicity mechanisms of T-2 toxin and the toxicity mechanism of its modified form, as well as human T-2 toxin biomarkers, are discussed. This work will contribute to an improved understanding of the immunotoxicity mechanism of T-2 toxin and its modified forms.

A competitive immunoassay based on engineered magnetic/fluorescent nanoparticles and biolayer interferometry-based assay for T-2 toxin determination

For the first time a competitive immunoassay was developed by employing T-2 antibody-functionalized magnetite nanoparticles and T-2 toxin-conjugated fluorescent quantum dots (QDs). Free T-2 and the T-2-modified QDs compete for binding to antibody-modified magnetic beads; the magnetic beads collected by magnetic separation were subjected to fluorescence intensity analysis (with excitation/emission wavelengths at 460/616 nm). This competitive immunoassay for T-2 toxin determination was applied both in a microcentrifuge tube and on a 96-well plate. The dynamic range of the immunoassay is 1-100 ng mL^-1, the limit of detection (LOD) is 0.1 ng mL^-1, and determination was completed in about 40 min and 30 min in the microcentrifuge tube and 96-well plate, respectively. Moreover, the biolayer interferometry (BLI) technique was employed for T-2 determination for the first time, in which the conjugate of T-2 toxin and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was immobilized on the sensors before detection. Its average recovery of T-2 toxin from barley sample ranged from 82.00 to 123.33%, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) was between 9.42 and 15.73%. The LOD of the BLI-based assay is 5 ng mL^-1, and it only takes 10 min to finish the determination. Graphical abstract.

Using Magnetic Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes as Modified QuEChERS Adsorbent for Simultaneous Determination of Multiple Mycotoxins in Grains by UPLC-MS/MS

The simultaneous detection of multiple mycotoxins is important due to the increased toxic effects of combined mycotoxins in grains. In this research, a combination of modified QuEChERS with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used for simultaneous detection of 20 mycotoxins in grains. A series of different types of magnetic (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles modified with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (Fe₃O₄-MWCNTs) were designed as modified QuEChERS adsorbents for facile and efficient purification and for target interferences removal in the matrices. When there is an external magnetic field, the proposed modified QuEChERS method uses a shorter pretreatment time compared with the traditional QuEChERS method, which makes it possible to conduct high-throughput analyses. To optimize the QuEChERS process, the extraction solvent and the type and amount of the Fe₃O₄-MWCNTs were investigated. Under optimal conditions, the method was validated and showed satisfactory linearity (r² ≥ 0.9965), good recovery (73.5-112.9%), good precision (1.3-12.7%), and excellent sensitivity (ranging from 0.0021 to 5.4457 ng g^-1), which indicates that this method can be used for detecting multiple mycotoxins in real samples.

Recent applications of carbonaceous nanosorbents for the analysis of mycotoxins in food by liquid chromatography: a short review

Carbonaceous nanomaterials (multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), graphene, and graphene oxide (GO)) have attracted attention over the last decade as adsorbents suitable for the analysis of organic and inorganic pollutants. In the present paper we review methods of mycotoxin analysis that involve sample extraction with carbonaceous nanosorbents, reported from 2011 onwards. Recent studies have highlighted the advantages of magnetically modified MWCNTs and GO in mycotoxin analysis, which may enable sample isolation through magnetic separation, reduce the interaction of nanoparticles, and enhance the recovery of analytes. The papers covered in this review point to promising applications of functionalised carbonaceous nanosorbents in mycotoxin analysis. While GO based sorbents can be effective for the adsorption of relatively polar aflatoxins, MWCNTs with high specific surface area and reduced agglomeration achieved through modification with silica and magnetic particles are preferred for the extraction of less polar mycotoxins.

Mycotoxin Contamination of Beverages Obtained from Tropical Crops

This review is mainly centered on beverages obtained from tropical crops, including tea, nut milk, coffee, cocoa, and those prepared from fruits. After considering the epidemiological data found on the matrices above, the focus was given to recent methodological approaches to assess the most relevant mycotoxins. Aspects such as singularities among the mycotoxin and the beverage in which their were found, and the economic effects and repercussions that the mycotoxin-tainted ingredients have on the beverage industry were pointed out. Finally, the burden of their consumption through beverages, including risk and health effects on humans, was addressed as well.

Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube for One-Step Cleanup of 21 Mycotoxins in Corn and Wheat Prior to Ultraperformance Liquid Chromatography⁻Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis

One-step solid-phase extraction (SPE) using a multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) for simultaneous analysis of 21 mycotoxins, including nine trichothecenes, zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivatives, four aflatoxins, and two ochratoxins, in corn and wheat was developed. Several key parameters affecting the performance of the one-step SPE procedure—types of MWCNT, combinations with five sorbents (octadecylsilyl (C₁₈), hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB), mixed-mode cationic exchange (MCX), silica gel, and amino-propyl (NH₂)), and filling amounts of the MWCNTs—were thoroughly investigated. The combination of 20 mg carboxylic MWCNT and 200 mg C₁₈ was proven to be the most effective, allowing the quantification of all analyzed mycotoxins in corn and wheat. Under the optimized cleanup procedure prior to ultraperformance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS) analysis, the method was validated by analyzing samples spiked at the limit of quantification (LOQ), two-times LOQ, and 10-times LOQ. Satisfactory linearity (r² ≥ 0.9910), high sensitivity (LOQ in different ranges of 0.5–25 μg L⁻¹), good recovery (75.6–110.3%), and acceptable precision (relative standard deviation (RSD), 0.3–10.7%) were obtained. The applicability of the method was further confirmed using raw samples of corn and wheat. In conclusion, the established method was rapid, simple and reliable for simultaneous analysis of 21 mycotoxins in corn and wheat.

Nanoparticles as a Solution for Eliminating the Risk of Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain filamentous fungi. The occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed causes negative health impacts on both humans and animals. Clay binders, yeast cell walls, or antioxidant additives are the most widely used products for mycotoxin elimination to reduce their impact. Although conventional methods are constantly improving, current research trends are looking for innovative solutions. Nanotechnology approaches seem to be a promising, effective, and low-cost way to minimize the health effects of mycotoxins. This review aims to shed light on the critical knowledge gap in mycotoxin elimination by nanotechnology. There are three main strategies: mold inhibition, mycotoxin adsorption, and reducing the toxic effect via nanoparticles. One of the most promising methods is the use of carbon-based nanomaterials. Graphene has been shown to have a huge surface and high binding capacity for mycotoxins. Attention has also been drawn to polymeric nanoparticles; they could substitute adsorbents or enclose any substance, which would improve the health status of the organism. In light of these findings, this review gives new insights into possible future research that might overcome challenges associated with nanotechnology utilization for mycotoxin elimination from agricultural products.

Risk to human and animal health related to the presence of 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol in food and feed

4,15‐Diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi and occurring predominantly in cereal grains. As requested by the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) assessed the risk of DAS to human and animal health related to its presence in food and feed. Very limited information was available on toxicity and on toxicokinetics in experimental and farm animals. Due to the limitations in the available data set, human acute and chronic health‐based guidance values (HBGV) were established based on data obtained in clinical trials of DAS as an anticancer agent (anguidine) after intravenous administration to cancer patients. The CONTAM Panel considered these data as informative for the hazard characterisation of DAS after oral exposure. The main adverse effects after acute and repeated exposure were emesis, with a no‐observed‐adverse‐effect level (NOAEL) of 32 μg DAS/kg body weight (bw), and haematotoxicity, with a NOAEL of 65 μg DAS/kg bw, respectively. An acute reference dose (ARfD) of 3.2 μg DAS/kg bw and a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.65 μg DAS/kg bw were established. Based on over 15,000 occurrence data, the highest acute and chronic dietary exposures were estimated to be 0.8 and 0.49 μg DAS/kg bw per day, respectively, and were not of health concern for humans. The limited information for poultry, pigs and dogs indicated a low risk for these animals at the estimated DAS exposure levels under current feeding practices, with the possible exception of fattening chicken. Assuming similar or lower sensitivity than for poultry, the risk was considered overall low for other farm and companion animal species for which no toxicity data were available. In consideration of the similarities of several trichothecenes and the likelihood of co‐exposure via food and feed, it could be appropriate to perform a cumulative risk assessment for this group of substances.

Exploring lipid markers of the quality of coix seeds with different geographical origins using supercritical fluid chromatography mass spectrometry and chemometrics

BACKGROUND

Lipids, a group of primary metabolites, could be used as quality markers of Traditional Chinese medicine.

PURPOSE

The present study was designed to develop a research method to explore lipid markers of the quality of coix seeds with different geographical origins.

STUDY DESIGN

The geographical origins of coix seeds were divided into three regions based on the latitude. A central composite design (CCD test) was used to optimize the chromatographic parameters of supercritical fluid chromatography to obtain optimal lipid profile of coix seed.

METHODS

An untargeted method based on ultra-performance convergence chromatography - quadrupole/time-of-flight hybrid mass spectrometry (UPC²-QTOF) was developed. Four chromatographic parameters were optimized using CCD test, and a fusion index established by Derringer function was used to evaluate. The lipid profile of 27 batches of coix seeds were acquired and processed by Progenesis QI software, and the MS/MS spectrums were obtained to identify, simultaneously. The difference lipids were explored by orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The lipids that showed differences depending on their seeds' geographical origin were selected as markers of the quality of coix seeds from the three regions.

RESULTS

A Torus 2-PIC (1.7 µm, 100 mm × 3.0 mm) was selected as the optimal column of the untargeted method which the run time was only 8 minutes. From the CCD test, the interaction of chromatographic parameters between column temperature and backpressure was founded which the optimal parameters were 55 °C and 2600 psi, respectively. Thirty-two peaks in the lipid profile of coix seed were tentatively identified, of which 20 were triglyceride, and 12 were diglyceride. Nine features that could potentially be used to distinguish the coix seeds by their geographical origin were identified, most of which were diglycerides, such as OP.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings confirm that UPC²-QTOF combined with chemometrics could be used as an efficient method for exploring potential lipid markers of the quality of herbal medicine.

Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2016-2017

This review summarises developments in the determination of mycotoxins over a period between mid-2016 and mid-2017. Analytical methods to determine aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes and zearalenone are covered in individual sections. Advances in proper sampling strategies are discussed in a dedicated section, as are methods used to analyse botanicals and spices and newly developed LC-MS based multi-mycotoxin methods. This critical review aims to briefly discuss the most important recent developments and trends in mycotoxin determination as well as to address limitations of the presented methodologies.

A Review of Current Methods for Analysis of Mycotoxins in Herbal Medicines

The presence of mycotoxins in herbal medicines is an established problem throughout the entire world. The sensitive and accurate analysis of mycotoxin in complicated matrices (e.g., herbs) typically involves challenging sample pretreatment procedures and an efficient detection instrument. However, although numerous reviews have been published regarding the occurrence of mycotoxins in herbal medicines, few of them provided a detailed summary of related analytical methods for mycotoxin determination. This review focuses on analytical techniques including sampling, extraction, cleanup, and detection for mycotoxin determination in herbal medicines established within the past ten years. Dedicated sections of this article address the significant developments in sample preparation, and highlight the importance of this procedure in the analytical technology. This review also summarizes conventional chromatographic techniques for mycotoxin qualification or quantitation, as well as recent studies regarding the development and application of screening assays such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, lateral flow immunoassays, aptamer-based lateral flow assays, and cytometric bead arrays. The present work provides a good insight regarding the advanced research that has been done and closes with an indication of future demand for the emerging technologies.