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Shi RRS, Shen P, Yu WZ, Cai M, Tay AJ, Lim I, Chin YS, Ang WM, Er JC, Lim GS, Wu Y, Li A, Aung KT, Chan SH. Occurrence and Dietary Exposure of 3-MCPD Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Domestically and Commercially Prepared Food in Singapore. Foods 2023; 12:4331. [PMID: 38231853 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the prevalence and occurrence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) in domestically and commercially prepared food in Singapore and assessed the total dietary exposure for the Singaporean population. Minimal impact on the formation of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was observed from the domestic cooking methods commonly practiced in Singapore such as deep frying and stir frying. The estimated total dietary exposure to 3-MCPDEs for the Singaporean population (aged 15 to 92) was 0.982 µg/kg bw/day for general consumers and 2.212 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers (95th percentile), which accounted for 49.1% and 110.6% of the tolerable dietary intake (TDI) at 2 µg/kg bw/day by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The calculated margins of exposure (MOE) for GEs based on the dietary exposure for general consumers at 0.882 µg/kg bw/day and 2.209 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers were below 10,000, indicating a potential health concern. Our study showed that the occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs varied among vegetable oils, and domestic cooking methods did not significantly impact the levels of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in prepared food. The critical factor influencing the prevalence and occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was the choice of oil used for cooking, which absorbed into the cooked food. It is essential to encourage the food industry to continue its innovation on mitigation measures to control and reduce 3-MCPDEs and GEs in vegetable oil production. Consumers are advised to make informed choices on food consumption and cooking oil for food preparation to reduce their exposure to 3-MCPDEs and GEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Rong Sheng Shi
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Ping Shen
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Wesley Zongrong Yu
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Miaohua Cai
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Ai Jin Tay
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Ignatius Lim
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Yee Soon Chin
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Wei Min Ang
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Jun Cheng Er
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Geraldine Songlen Lim
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Yuansheng Wu
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Angela Li
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Kyaw Thu Aung
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Sheot Harn Chan
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 2 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117543, Singapore
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Kamandloo F, Rezaei K, Aghakhani A. Effects of herb (mint, cinnamon and ginger) addition on the formation of 3‐monochloropropanediol esters in the refined olive oil. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.16974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Farzaneh Kamandloo
- Department of Food Science, Engineering, and Technology University of Tehran Karaj Iran
| | - Karamatollah Rezaei
- Department of Food Science, Engineering, and Technology University of Tehran Karaj Iran
| | - Ali Aghakhani
- Department of Food Science, Engineering, and Technology University of Tehran Karaj Iran
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3
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Yuan Y, Cui C, Liu H, Li X, Cao Y, Zhang Y, Yan H. Effects of oxidation and hydrolysis of frying oil on MCPD esters formation in Chinese fried dough sticks. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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4
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Liu Y, Wen J, Luo Z. Non-Target Detection of Diversity of Volatile Chlorine Compounds in Frying Oil and Study on the Influencing Factors of Their Formation. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-021-02142-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AbstractHeadspace-gas-chromatography ion-mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) proved the diversity of volatile chlorinated compounds (VCCs) in frying oil in this work. First, the VCCs were obtained by headspace by heating the frying oil at 80 °C for 30 min. Then, those compounds were separated by GC capillary column in the first dimension and by IMS in the second dimension, respectively. And at last, those compounds were detected in negative ion mode for non-targeting. The study results indicated that VCCs' formation depends on the contents of NaCl and water, heating temperature and time, and the types of oil. The refining process does not affect the detection of VCCs, indicating the durability of such targets as indicators for assessing deep-frying oil. Using HS-GC-IMS, the VCCs were detected to evaluate 16 authentic refined deep-frying oils from the market with an accuracy of 100%.
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Effects of Food Types, Frying Frequency, and Frying Temperature on 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol Esters and Glycidyl Esters Content in Palm Oil during Frying. Foods 2021; 10:foods10102266. [PMID: 34681315 PMCID: PMC8534808 DOI: 10.3390/foods10102266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) have high toxicity and have drawn global attention because of their widespread occurrence in refined oils and oil-based foods. In this study, the effects of food type (potato chips and chicken breasts), frying frequency, and frying temperature on the formation of 3-MCPDE and GE in palm oil (PO) were investigated. The results showed that 3-MCPDE was formed easier in chicken breasts than potato chips. The GE content decreased in PO after it was used for frying potato chips and chicken breasts with or without NaCl. Frying frequency was an influencing factor in the formation of 3-MCPDE and the decrease in GE in PO. Frying temperature was positively correlated with GE degradation, while it had a bidirectional effect on the formation of 3-MCPDE. The formation kinetic equations indicated that 3-MCPDE and GE followed zero-order reactions in PO. The estimated activation energy (Ea) of 1,2-bis-palmitoyl-3-chloropropanediol (Pa-Pa, 41.05 kJ/mol) was lower than those of the other three types of 3-MCPDE; this is the first theoretical explanation for why PO contains more 3-MCPD than other edible oils. Among GEs, glycidyl oleate (Li-GE) was degraded more readily than other GEs.
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Martin AA, Fodjo EK, Eric-Simon ZV, Gu Z, Yang G, Albert T, Kong C, Wang HF. Cys-AgNPs modified gold electrode as an ultrasensitive electrochemical sensor for the detection of 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol. ARAB J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
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7
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Chew CL, Ab Karim NA, Quek WP, Wong SK, Lee YY, Chan ES. Aerobic-liquor treatment improves the quality and deep-frying performance of refined palm oil. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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8
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Goh KM, Wong YH, Tan CP, Nyam KL. A summary of 2-, 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl ester occurrence during frying and baking processes. Curr Res Food Sci 2021; 4:460-469. [PMID: 34296198 PMCID: PMC8281601 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2021.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Monochloropropanediol (MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters (GE) are the process contaminants found in frying and baking, except the refining process. The free form MCPD and glycidol are released from their parent esters via lipase hydrolysis while they are carcinogen and genotoxic carcinogen, respectively. MCPD esters and GE are formed endogenously during vegetable oil refining process. Then, their concentration were experimented during subsequent food processing methods, especially frying and baking. This review discussed the occurrence of 2-, 3-MCPD esters and GE during frying and baking processes. Process temperature, process duration, presence of precursors, and their combined effects are highly related to MCPD esters and GE formations. An elevated temperature and processing time can increase the formation of these contaminants until an optimum rate and then followed by the decomposition. Also, other factors such as the presence of chloride ions, moisture, and partial acylglycerol can further facilitate MCPD esters and/or GE formation. Frying and baking trigger formation of MCPD esters and GE. MCPD esters and GE are formed endogenously during refining process. The concentration of MCPD esters and GE elevated during thermal processing. Temperature, process duration, and precursors cause MCPD esters and GE formations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok Ming Goh
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, 56000, Malaysia
| | - Yu Hua Wong
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chin Ping Tan
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kar Lin Nyam
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, 56000, Malaysia
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9
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Contributions of different factors to ratio of 3-monochloro-1, 2-propanediol to 2-monochloro-1, 3-propanediol esters during frying simulation. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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10
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Yan K, Wu S, Gong G, Sun Y. A new approach of specific determination for 6-chlorobenzo[a]pyrene and 7-chlorobenzo[a]anthracene in six different oils. Food Chem 2020; 316:126344. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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11
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Bognár EK, Zay K, Somogyi L. FORMATION OF 3-MONOCHLORO-1,2-PROPANEDIOL FATTY ACID ESTERS DURING DEEP-FAT FRYING OF PRE-FRIED DEEP FROZEN FOOD WITH DIFFERENT SALT CONTENT. ACTA ALIMENTARIA 2020. [DOI: 10.1556/066.2020.49.2.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Changes of edible oil quality factors and formation of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol fatty acid esters (3-MCPD-FE) during deep-fat frying in four different experiments (control, salt, pork chop, and chicken liver) with high oleic sunflower oil were compared in this study. Based on the results of investigated oil quality parameters, which were free fatty acid (FFA), anisidine value (AV), UV extinction at 232 and 268 nm (E232 and E268, respectively), and total polar material (TPM), only a modest deterioration of the frying oil was observed. As we expected, the 3-MCPD-FE content in the control samples did not reach the limit of quantification (0.1 mg kg–1), while the table salt itself caused a slight increase. The results of pork chop and chicken liver experiments were not statistically different from each other, after the third frying circle 0.52 and 0.39 mg kg–1 3-MCPD-FE levels were reached, respectively. Based on these values, the human exposure estimation resulted in a low risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Keppelné Bognár
- Department of Grain and Industrial Plant Processing, Szent István University, H-1118 Budapest, Villányi út 29–43. Hungary
| | - K. Zay
- Department of Grain and Industrial Plant Processing, Szent István University, H-1118 Budapest, Villányi út 29–43. Hungary
| | - L. Somogyi
- Department of Grain and Industrial Plant Processing, Szent István University, H-1118 Budapest, Villányi út 29–43. Hungary
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12
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Ahmad Tarmizi AH, Abd Razak RA, Abdul Hammid AN, Kuntom A. Effect of Anti-Clouding Agent on the Fate of 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Palm Olein during Repeated Frying. Molecules 2019; 24:E2332. [PMID: 31242570 PMCID: PMC6630994 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24122332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Issues on 3-monochloropropane-diol-1,2-diol (MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters in refined oil have gained much attention when these heat-induced contaminants are associated with health implications. Oil that undergoes the frying process could influence the fates of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters, especially with the addition of an anti-clouding agent. In this study, we investigated the effect of polyglycerol fatty acid esters (PGE) on the transients of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in palm olein (POo) during intermittent frying. Thermal resistance of POo fortified with PGE (0.1% to 0.4%) was assessed for 8 h of daily frying operations at 180 °C across five consecutive days. The addition of PGE decelerated the reduction of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters with the progression of frying. The presence of these compounds coincided with the amount of oil taken up by the fried product. The inclusion of PGE in POo also induced higher augmentation of polar compound fractions, i.e., oxidised triacylglycerols (OxTAG) and polymerised triacylglycerols (PTAG), but gave comparable free fatty acid (FFA), p-anisidine value (AnV), total chloride and fatty acid composition (FAC) with control oil (POo). The results also showed that the presence of chloride in POo did not onset further formation of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters throughout the frying period. As the behaviours of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters were affected by PGE, only a sufficient amount should be added into POo to ensure oil clarity at a realistic period.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raznim Arni Abd Razak
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | | | - Ainie Kuntom
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia.
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13
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Turan S, Solak R, Keskin S. Investigation of the Formation of Free and Bound 2‐ and 3‐Monochloropropane‐1,2‐Diols During Deep Frying of Leavened Dough Using Response Surface Methodology. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201800019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Semra Turan
- Department of Food EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringBolu Abant Izzet Baysal UniversityGolkoy CampusBolu TR14030Turkey
| | - Rukiye Solak
- Department of Food EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringBolu Abant Izzet Baysal UniversityGolkoy CampusBolu TR14030Turkey
| | - Sule Keskin
- Department of Food EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringBolu Abant Izzet Baysal UniversityGolkoy CampusBolu TR14030Turkey
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14
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Effect of chemical refining on the levels of bioactive components and hazardous substances in soybean oil. JOURNAL OF FOOD MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11694-019-00058-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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15
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Merkle S, Ostermeyer U, Rohn S, Karl H, Fritsche J. Formation of Ester Bound 2- and 3-MCPD and Esterified Glycidol in Deep-Fried and Pickled Herring Products. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201700464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sybille Merkle
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Food Science; Hamburg University of Applied Sciences; Ulmenliet 20, Hamburg 21033 Germany
| | - Ute Ostermeyer
- Department of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products; Max Rubner-Institut; Federal Research Institute for Nutrition and Food; Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103 Germany
| | - Sascha Rohn
- Hamburg School of Food Science; Institute of Food Chemistry; University of Hamburg; Grindelallee 117, Hamburg 20146 Germany
| | - Horst Karl
- Department of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products; Max Rubner-Institut; Federal Research Institute for Nutrition and Food; Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103 Germany
| | - Jan Fritsche
- Department of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products; Max Rubner-Institut; Federal Research Institute for Nutrition and Food; Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103 Germany
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16
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Merkle S, Ostermeyer U, Rohn S, Karl H, Fritsche J. Mitigation strategies for ester bound 2-/3-MCPD and esterified glycidol in pre-fried breaded and frozen fish products. Food Chem 2018; 245:196-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.10.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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17
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Chai Q, Hayat K, Karangwa E, Duhoranimana E, Zhang X, Xia S, Yu J. Investigating the optimum conditions for minimized 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol esters content and improved sensory attributes during savory beef flavor preparation. Food Chem 2018; 243:96-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.09.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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18
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Belkova B, Hradecky J, Hurkova K, Forstova V, Vaclavik L, Hajslova J. Impact of vacuum frying on quality of potato crisps and frying oil. Food Chem 2017; 241:51-59. [PMID: 28958558 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.08.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This research was focused on a critical assessment of vacuum frying as a technology enabling minimization of acrylamide formation in potato crisps and reducing undesirable chemical changes that occur in frying oil at high temperatures. The potato slices were fried in rapeseed oil under vacuum at 125°C and atmospheric pressure at 165°C. The experiments were performed on two potato varieties, Saturna and Impala. Vacuum frying reduced the formation of acrylamide by 98% and also other Maillard reaction products, specifically alkylpyrazines. Concurrently a lower extent of oxidative changes was observed in the frying oil, while 3-MCPD esters decreased fairly quickly during conventional frying. Sensory characteristics of the vacuum and conventionally fried potato crisps were evaluated by a 23-member panel. The majority of panellists preferred the flavour of 'conventional crisps', while only a few of them appreciated potato-like fresh flavour of 'vacuum crisps' and classified this product as 'tasty'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beverly Belkova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jaromir Hradecky
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Kamila Hurkova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Forstova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Lukas Vaclavik
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hajslova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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19
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Chiou A, Kalogeropoulos N. Virgin Olive Oil as Frying Oil. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2017; 16:632-646. [PMID: 33371562 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Frying is one of the oldest cooking procedures and is still among the most popular ones for food preparation. Due to their unique sensory characteristics, fried foods are consumed often and with pleasure. During frying, part of the oil is absorbed by the food, thereby becoming part of our diet; most interestingly, in the Mediterranean area approximately 50% of total fat intake is provided by cooking fats. Olive oil is the key lipid component of the Mediterranean diet, the health-promoting effects of which have been largely attributed to olive oil intake. Olive oil is unique among vegetable oils due to its desirable lipid profile and some of its minor components. Scientific evidence now indicates that during frying olive oil behavior is usually equal or superior to that of refined vegetable oils. Herein, an overview of virgin olive oil performance under frying is given, with special reference to the fate of olive oil microconstituents. The compositional changes of foods fried in olive oil are also reviewed and discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Chiou
- Laboratory of Chemistry - Biochemistry - Physical Chemistry of Foods, Dept. of Dietetics and Nutrition, Harokopio Univ., 70 El. Venizelou Ave., Kallithea, 176 71, Athens, Greece
| | - Nick Kalogeropoulos
- Laboratory of Chemistry - Biochemistry - Physical Chemistry of Foods, Dept. of Dietetics and Nutrition, Harokopio Univ., 70 El. Venizelou Ave., Kallithea, 176 71, Athens, Greece
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20
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Effect of deep-frying on 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters contents and quality control of refined olive pomace oil blended with refined palm oil. Eur Food Res Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-016-2836-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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21
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22
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Effects of process parameters on 3-MCPD and glycidyl ester formation during steam distillation of olive oil and olive pomace oil. Eur Food Res Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-015-2587-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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23
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The Effect of Type of Oil and Degree of Degradation on Glycidyl Esters Content During the Frying of French Fries. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2015; 92:1621-1631. [PMID: 26640279 PMCID: PMC4661204 DOI: 10.1007/s11746-015-2715-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of oil degradation on the content of glycidyl esters (GEs) in oils used for the frying of French fries. As frying media, refined oils such as rapeseed, palm, palm olein and blend were used. French fries were fried for 40 h in oils heated to 180 °C in 30-min cycles. After every 8 h of frying, fresh oil and samples were analyzed for acid and anisidine values, color, refractive index, fatty acid composition, and content and composition of the polar fraction. GEs were determined by LC–MS. Hydrolysis and polymerization occurred most intensively in palm olein, while oxidation was reported for rapeseed oil. The degradation of oil caused increased changes in the RI of frying oils. Losses of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids were observed in all samples, with the largest share in blend. The highest content of GE found in fresh oil was in palm olein (25 mg kg−1) and the lowest content of GE was found in rapeseed oil (0.8 mg kg−1). The palm oil, palm olein and blend were dominated by GEs of palmitic and oleic acids, while rapeseed oil was dominated by GE of oleic acid. With increasing frying time, the content of GEs decreased with losses from 47 % in rapeseed oil to 78 % in palm oil after finishing frying.
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