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Purohit K, Reddy N, Sunna A. Exploring the Potential of Bioactive Peptides: From Natural Sources to Therapeutics. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1391. [PMID: 38338676 PMCID: PMC10855437 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Bioactive peptides, specific protein fragments with positive health effects, are gaining traction in drug development for advantages like enhanced penetration, low toxicity, and rapid clearance. This comprehensive review navigates the intricate landscape of peptide science, covering discovery to functional characterization. Beginning with a peptidomic exploration of natural sources, the review emphasizes the search for novel peptides. Extraction approaches, including enzymatic hydrolysis, microbial fermentation, and specialized methods for disulfide-linked peptides, are extensively covered. Mass spectrometric analysis techniques for data acquisition and identification, such as liquid chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, untargeted peptide analysis, and bioinformatics, are thoroughly outlined. The exploration of peptide bioactivity incorporates various methodologies, from in vitro assays to in silico techniques, including advanced approaches like phage display and cell-based assays. The review also discusses the structure-activity relationship in the context of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), ACE-inhibitory peptides (ACEs), and antioxidative peptides (AOPs). Concluding with key findings and future research directions, this interdisciplinary review serves as a comprehensive reference, offering a holistic understanding of peptides and their potential therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kruttika Purohit
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia;
- Australian Research Council Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Facilitated Advancement of Australia’s Bioactives (FAAB), Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia;
| | - Narsimha Reddy
- Australian Research Council Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Facilitated Advancement of Australia’s Bioactives (FAAB), Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia;
- School of Science, Parramatta Campus, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
| | - Anwar Sunna
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia;
- Australian Research Council Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Facilitated Advancement of Australia’s Bioactives (FAAB), Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia;
- Biomolecular Discovery Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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Dai H, He M, Hu G, Li Z, Al-Romaima A, Wu Z, Liu X, Qiu M. Discovery of ACE Inhibitory Peptides Derived from Green Coffee Using In Silico and In Vitro Methods. Foods 2023; 12:3480. [PMID: 37761189 PMCID: PMC10529643 DOI: 10.3390/foods12183480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) is an important means of treating hypertension since it plays an important regulatory function in the renin-angiotensin system. The aim of this study was to investigate the ACE inhibitory effect of bioactive peptides from green coffee beans using in silico and in vitro methods. Alcalase and thermolysin were employed to hydrolyze protein extract from coffee beans. Bioactive peptides were identified by LC-MS/MS analysis coupled with database searching. The potential bioactivities of peptides were predicted by in silico screening, among which five novel peptides may have ACE inhibitory activity. In vitro assay was carried out to determine the ACE inhibitory degree. Two peptides (IIPNEVY, ITPPVMLPP) were obtained with IC50 values of 57.54 and 40.37 μM, respectively. Furthermore, it was found that two inhibitors bound to the receptor protein on similar sites near the S1 active pocket of ACE to form stable enzyme-peptide complexes through molecular docking, and the Lineweaver-Burk plot showed that IIPNEVY was a noncompetitive inhibitor, and ITPPVMLPP was suggested to be a mixed-type inhibitor. Our study demonstrated that two peptides isolated from coffee have potential applications as antihypertensive agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haopeng Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Min He
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Guilin Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhongrong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
| | - Abdulbaset Al-Romaima
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhouwei Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaocui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Minghua Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (H.D.); (M.H.); (G.H.); (Z.L.); (A.A.-R.); (Z.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Zhang X, Li X, Zhao Y, Zheng Q, Wu Q, Yu Y. Nanocarrier system: An emerging strategy for bioactive peptide delivery. Front Nutr 2022; 9:1050647. [PMID: 36545472 PMCID: PMC9760884 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1050647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared with small-molecule synthetic drugs, bioactive peptides have desirable advantages in efficiency, selectivity, safety, tolerance, and side effects, which are accepted by attracting extensive attention from researchers in food, medicine, and other fields. However, unacceptable barriers, including mucus barrier, digestive enzyme barrier, and epithelial barrier, cause the weakening or the loss of bioavailability and biostability of bioactive peptides. The nanocarrier system for bioactive peptide delivery needs to be further probed. We provide a comprehensive update on the application of versatile delivery systems for embedding bioactive peptides, including liposomes, polymer nanoparticles, polysaccharides, hydrogels, and self-emulsifying delivery systems, and further clarify their structural characterization, advantages, and disadvantages as delivery systems. It aims to provide a reference for the maximum utilization of bioactive peptides. It is expected to be an effective strategy for improving the bioavailability and biostability of bioactive peptides.
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Advances in analytical techniques coupled to in vitro bioassays in the search for new peptides with functional activity in effect-directed analysis. Food Chem 2022; 397:133784. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Identification and characterization of a novel tetrapeptide from enzymatic hydrolysates of Baijiu byproduct. FOOD SCIENCE AND HUMAN WELLNESS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2022.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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A Review on Nutrients, Phytochemicals, and Health Benefits of Green Seaweed, Caulerpa lentillifera. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182832. [PMID: 36140958 PMCID: PMC9498133 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Caulerpa lentillifera is a type of green seaweed widely consumed as a fresh vegetable, specifically in Southeast Asia. Interestingly, this green seaweed has recently gained popularity in the food sector. Over the last two decades, many studies have reported that C. lentillifera is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds that contribute many health benefits. On the other hand, there is currently hardly any article dedicated specifically to C. lentillifera regarding nutritional composition and recent advancements in its potential health benefits. Hence, this study will summarise the findings on the nutritional content of C. lentillifera and compile recently discovered beneficial properties throughout the past decade. From the data compiled in this review paper, it can be concluded that the nutrient and phytochemical profile of C. lentillifera differs from one region to another depending on various external factors. As a result, this paper will offer researchers the groundwork to develop food products based on C. lentillifera. The authors of this paper are hopeful that a more systematic review could be done in the future as currently, existing data is still scarce.
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Purification and Identification of a Novel Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitory Peptide from the Enzymatic Hydrolysate of Lepidotrigla microptera. Foods 2022; 11:foods11131889. [PMID: 35804705 PMCID: PMC9265830 DOI: 10.3390/foods11131889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, Lepidotrigla microptera were hydrolyzed with four different proteolytic enzymes (Papain, neutrase, flavourzyme, and alcalase), and their distribution of molecular weights and ACE-inhibitory activity were tested. The alcalase hydrolysates showed the maximum ACE-inhibitory activity. A novel ACE-inhibitory peptide was isolated and purified from Lepidotrigla microptera protein hydrolysate (LMPH) using ultrafiltration, gel filtration chromatography, and preparative high performance liquid chromatography (prep-HPLC). The amino acid sequence of the purified peptide was identified as Phe-Leu-Thr-Ala-Gly-Leu-Leu-Asp (DLTAGLLE), and the IC50 value was 0.13 mg/mL. The ACE-inhibitory activity of DLTAGLLE was stable across a range of temperatures (<100 °C) and pH values (3.0−11.0) and retained after gastrointestinal digestion. DLTAGLLE was further identified as a noncompetitive inhibitor by Lineweaver−Burk plot. The molecular docking simulation showed that DLTAGLLE showed a high binding affinity with ACE sites by seven short hydrogen bonds. As the first reported antihypertensive peptide extracted from alcalase hydrolysate of Lepidotrigla microptera, DLTAGLLE has the potential to develop functional food or novel ACE-inhibitor drugs.
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Red seaweed: A promising alternative protein source for global food sustainability. Trends Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Therapeutic Potential of Seaweed-Derived Bioactive Compounds for Cardiovascular Disease Treatment. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12031025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases are closely related to hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, and hyperlipidemia. Many studies have reported that an unhealthy diet and sedentary lifestyle are critical factors that enhance these diseases. Recently, many bioactive compounds isolated from marine seaweeds have been studied for their benefits in improving human health. In particular, several unique bioactive metabolites such as polyphenols, polysaccharides, peptides, carotene, and sterol are the most effective components responsible for these activities. This review summarizes the current in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies related to the protective effects of bioactive compounds isolated from seaweeds against cardiovascular disorders, including anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, anti-hyperlipidemia, and anti-obesity effects. Therefore, this present review summarizes these concepts and provides a basis for further in-depth research.
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Seaweed-Derived Proteins and Peptides: Promising Marine Bioactives. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11010176. [PMID: 35052680 PMCID: PMC8773382 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11010176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Seaweeds are a typical food of East-Asian cuisine, to which are alleged several beneficial health effects have been attributed. Their availability and their nutritional and chemical composition have favored the increase in its consumption worldwide, as well as a focus of research due to their bioactive properties. In this regard, seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable and comprise several specific enzymes, glycoproteins, cell wall-attached proteins, red algae phycobiliproteins, lectins, peptides, or mycosporine-like amino acids. This great extent of molecules has been reported to exert significant antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, or antitumoral properties. Hence, knowledge on algae proteins and derived compounds have gained special interest for the potential nutraceutical, cosmetic or pharmaceutical industries based on these bioactivities. Although several molecular mechanisms of action on how these proteins and peptides exert biological activities have been described, many gaps in knowledge still need to be filled. Updating the current knowledge related to seaweed proteins and peptides is of interest to further asses their potential health benefits. This review addresses the characteristics of seaweed protein and protein-derived molecules, their natural occurrence, their studied bioactive properties, and their described potential mechanisms of action.
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AMORIM ANDREZAPDE, SILVA GABRIELLYHDA, BRANDÃO ROMEROMP, PORTO ANALÚCIAF, BEZERRA RAQUELP. Algae as a source of peptides inhibitors of the angiotensin-converting enzyme: a systematic review. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2022; 94:e20201636. [DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765202220201636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Cunha SA, Pintado ME. Bioactive peptides derived from marine sources: Biological and functional properties. Trends Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Wu Q, Luo F, Wang XL, Lin Q, Liu GQ. Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptide: an emerging candidate for vascular dysfunction therapy. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2021; 42:736-755. [PMID: 34634988 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2021.1948816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Abnormal vasoconstriction, inflammation, and vascular remodeling can be promoted by angiotensin II (Ang II) in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), leading to vascular dysfunction diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. Researchers have recently focused on angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides (ACEIPs), that have desirable efficacy in vascular dysfunction therapy due to Ang II reduction by inhibiting ACE activity. Promising methods for the large-scale preparation of ACEIPs include selective enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial fermentation. Thus far, ACEIPs have been widely reported to be hydrolyzed from protein-rich sources, including animals, plants, and marine organisms, while many emerging microorganism-derived ACEIPs are theoretically biosynthesized through the nonribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS) pathway. Notably, vasodilatation, anti-inflammation, and vascular reconstruction reversal of ACEIPs are strongly correlated. However, the related molecular mechanisms underlying signal transduction regulation in vivo remain unclear. We provide a comprehensive update of the ACE-Ang II-G protein-coupled type 1 angiotensin receptor (AT1R) axis signaling and its functional significance for potential translation into therapeutic strategies, particularly targeting AT1R by ACEIPs, as well as specific related signaling pathways. Future studies are expected to verify the biosynthetic regulatory mechanism of ACEIPs via the NRPS pathway, the effect of gut microbiota metabolism on vascular dysfunction and rigorous studies of ACE-Ang II-AT1R signaling pathways mediated by ACEIPs in large animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Wu
- International Cooperation Base of Science and Technology Innovation on Forest Resource Biotechnology of Hunan Province, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China.,College of Food and Chemical Engineering, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang, China
| | - Feijun Luo
- International Cooperation Base of Science and Technology Innovation on Forest Resource Biotechnology of Hunan Province, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China.,College of Food Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China
| | - Xiao-Ling Wang
- International Cooperation Base of Science and Technology Innovation on Forest Resource Biotechnology of Hunan Province, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China
| | - Qinlu Lin
- International Cooperation Base of Science and Technology Innovation on Forest Resource Biotechnology of Hunan Province, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China.,College of Food Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China
| | - Gao-Qiang Liu
- International Cooperation Base of Science and Technology Innovation on Forest Resource Biotechnology of Hunan Province, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, China
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Cermeño M, Kleekayai T, Amigo‐Benavent M, Harnedy‐Rothwell P, FitzGerald RJ. Current knowledge on the extraction, purification, identification, and validation of bioactive peptides from seaweed. Electrophoresis 2020; 41:1694-1717. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.202000153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cermeño
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Limerick Limerick Ireland
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Cermeño M, Stack J, Tobin PR, O'Keeffe MB, Harnedy PA, Stengel DB, FitzGerald RJ. Peptide identification from a Porphyra dioica protein hydrolysate with antioxidant, angiotensin converting enzyme and dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitory activities. Food Funct 2019; 10:3421-3429. [PMID: 31134998 DOI: 10.1039/c9fo00680j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A Porphyra dioica protein extract was enzymatically hydrolysed and then fractionated using semi-preparative reverse-phase high performance chromatography. The hydrolysate and its fractions were tested for their oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) along with their angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitory activities. The most potent fraction was analysed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Eight peptide sequences were selected for synthesis based on their structure-activity criteria for bioactivity. Asp-Tyr-Tyr-Lys-Arg showed the highest ORAC activity (4.27 ± 0.15 μmol Trolox equivalent per μM). Thr-Tyr-Ile-Ala had the highest ACE inhibitory activity (IC50: 89.7 ± 7.10 μM). Tyr-Leu-Val-Ala was the only peptide showing DPP-IV inhibitory activity (IC50: 439 ± 44 μM). Apart from Asp-Tyr-Tyr-Lys-Arg and Thr-Tyr-Ile-Ala, which displayed increased ORAC activity, the bioactivities of the peptides were either maintained or decreased following in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion. The results indicate that P. dioica-derived peptides may have potential applications as health enhancing ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cermeño
- Proteins and Peptides Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Limerick, Ireland.
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Bleakley S, Hayes M. Algal Proteins: Extraction, Application, and Challenges Concerning Production. Foods 2017; 6:E33. [PMID: 28445408 PMCID: PMC5447909 DOI: 10.3390/foods6050033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Population growth combined with increasingly limited resources of arable land and fresh water has resulted in a need for alternative protein sources. Macroalgae (seaweed) and microalgae are examples of under-exploited "crops". Algae do not compete with traditional food crops for space and resources. This review details the characteristics of commonly consumed algae, as well as their potential for use as a protein source based on their protein quality, amino acid composition, and digestibility. Protein extraction methods applied to algae to date, including enzymatic hydrolysis, physical processes, and chemical extraction and novel methods such as ultrasound-assisted extraction, pulsed electric field, and microwave-assisted extraction are discussed. Moreover, existing protein enrichment methods used in the dairy industry and the potential of these methods to generate high value ingredients from algae, such as bioactive peptides and functional ingredients are discussed. Applications of algae in human nutrition, animal feed, and aquaculture are examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Bleakley
- Food Biosciences Department, Teagasc Ashtown Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin D15 KN3K, Ireland.
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Sciences and Health and Environment, Sustainability and Health Institute, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin D08 NF82, Ireland.
| | - Maria Hayes
- Food Biosciences Department, Teagasc Ashtown Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin D15 KN3K, Ireland.
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