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Li L, Flores M, Salvador A, Belloch C. Impact of paprika and dextrose addition on dry cured loins microbiota and its effect on aroma development. Int J Food Microbiol 2024; 421:110782. [PMID: 38851175 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
The impact of paprika and dextrose addition on the surface of dry cured loins was analysed attending to differences in microbiota composition and aroma profile. Three different types of loins containing either dextrose (D), paprika (P) or a mixture of dextrose and paprika (DP) were manufactured. The loins were characterized using physic-chemical parameters, free amino acids, volatile compounds and aroma sensorial analysis, as well as applying microbiological counts and metagenomics of the 16S rRNA gene and its rDNA region. The analysis of volatile compounds clearly distinguished all loins, whereas the total content of free amino acids only separated P from D and DP loins. The main sensory differences were linked to paprika addition, which increased the perception of paprika and smoky odors as well as cured, savoury and cheesy notes. Microbial counts analysis could not differentiate between the three loin types; however, metagenomics analysis revealed clear differences in key bacterial and fungal genera among the three loins. Paprika addition favoured dominance of Latilactobacillus in the microbiota of P loins. On the contrary, dextrose addition caused the dominance of Staphylococcus in the microbiota of D loins. In DP loins, both genera were similarly represented in the bacterial community. Regarding fungi, large differences could be observed within the P and D loins, whereas the proportion of Debaryomyces in DP loins increased. The microbiota composition of DP loins controlled the lipid oxidation phenomenon, reducing the generation of derived volatiles producing rancid notes and increase the volatile compounds derived from amino acids such as branched aldehydes, pyrazines and pyrroles, providing particular aroma notes to the loins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Li
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Avda. Agustín Escardino 7, E-46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Monica Flores
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Avda. Agustín Escardino 7, E-46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ana Salvador
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Avda. Agustín Escardino 7, E-46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Carmela Belloch
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Avda. Agustín Escardino 7, E-46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
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2
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Zhang W, Xiao Z, Gu Z, Deng X, Liu J, Luo X, Song C, Jiang X. Fermentation-promoting effect of three salt-tolerant Staphylococcus and their co-fermentation flavor characteristics with Zygosaccharomyces rouxii in soy sauce brewing. Food Chem 2024; 432:137245. [PMID: 37657348 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus is the dominant genus in the fermentation process of soy sauce, but its effect on the flavor of soy sauce has not been clearly established. In order to investigate the role of this genus in soy sauce fermentation, individual fermentation with Staphylococcus spp. screened from the moromi and their co-fermentation with an ester-producing yeast of Zygosaccharomyces rouxii were designed. Through the analysis of physicochemical properties, organic acid composition, volatile flavor compounds (VFCs) and sensory characteristics during fermentation, Staphylococcus was confirmed as a contributor to the acidity, ester aroma and alcohol aroma of soy sauce. In their co-fermentation with yeast, the ester aroma of soy sauce was further enhanced. Moreover, pathway enrichment analysis and network construction of key VFCs also revealed potential metabolic networks for formation of characteristic flavor compounds in co-fermentation. This work will help optimize the fermentation functional microbiota to obtain better soy sauce flavor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China
| | - Zhangchi Xiao
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China
| | - Zimeng Gu
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China
| | - Xiang Deng
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China
| | - Jun Liu
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China; Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Centre for Condiment Fermentation, Changsha 410600, China
| | - Xiaoming Luo
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China; Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Centre for Condiment Fermentation, Changsha 410600, China
| | - Chunxiang Song
- Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Centre for Condiment Fermentation, Changsha 410600, China
| | - Xuewei Jiang
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China; Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Centre for Condiment Fermentation, Changsha 410600, China.
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Wang H, Wang J, Wang Y, Gao S, Xu S, Zou X, Meng X. Characterization and Correlation of Dominant Microbiota and Flavor Development in Different Post-Mortem Processes of Beef. Foods 2023; 12:3266. [PMID: 37685199 PMCID: PMC10486546 DOI: 10.3390/foods12173266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-mortem aging could enhance the unique flavors of beef via several biochemical pathways. The microbiota is one of the important factors in the flavor development of aging beef, but their potential relationship has rarely been studied. This study characterized the apparent meat quality, flavor profiles, and microbial communities of beef during the different post-mortem processes, followed by the investigation of the correlations between the dominant microbiota and key volatile compounds. The results showed that wet-aged beef has a higher product yield and more stable color than dry-aged beef, as evidenced by the significantly lower value of aging loss and discoloration (ΔE). According to the odor activity value, 11 out of 65 compounds were categorized as aroma-active components, and 9 of them, including 1-pentanol, 1-octen-3-ol, hexanal, nonanal, heptanal, octanal, 2-nonenal, (E)-, 2-octenal, (E)- and 2-decenal, (E)-, were enriched in beef wet-aged for 7 d. Significant variances were found in the microbial communities of different aging beef. Of these, 20 microbiota (with 10 bacterial and 10 fungal genera) were recognized as the dominant genus. Partial least squares regression combined with a correlation network model revealed that five microbial genera, including Trichosporon, Prauserella, Rhodotorula, Malassezia, and Corynebacterium, constituted the functional microbiota responsible for flavor formation in aging beef and were positively associated with ≥7 key volatile compounds (p < 0.05, |ρ| > 0.7). This study suggests that the application of wet aging within 7 d on beef is better for meat quality and provides novel insights into the mechanisms of flavor formation in post-mortem aging beef via functional microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengpeng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Chinese Cuisine Intangible Cultural Heritage Technology Inheritance, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, College of Tourism and Culinary Science, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China; (H.W.); (J.W.); (S.G.); (S.X.)
- International Joint Research Laboratory of Intelligent Agriculture and Agriproducts Processing, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China;
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Yangzhou Prepared Cuisine, Yangzhou 225127, China
| | - Jipan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Chinese Cuisine Intangible Cultural Heritage Technology Inheritance, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, College of Tourism and Culinary Science, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China; (H.W.); (J.W.); (S.G.); (S.X.)
| | - Yinlan Wang
- School of Food Science, Jiangsu College of Tourism, Yangzhou 225000, China;
| | - Sumin Gao
- Key Laboratory of Chinese Cuisine Intangible Cultural Heritage Technology Inheritance, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, College of Tourism and Culinary Science, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China; (H.W.); (J.W.); (S.G.); (S.X.)
| | - Shuangyi Xu
- Key Laboratory of Chinese Cuisine Intangible Cultural Heritage Technology Inheritance, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, College of Tourism and Culinary Science, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China; (H.W.); (J.W.); (S.G.); (S.X.)
| | - Xiaobo Zou
- International Joint Research Laboratory of Intelligent Agriculture and Agriproducts Processing, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China;
| | - Xiangren Meng
- Key Laboratory of Chinese Cuisine Intangible Cultural Heritage Technology Inheritance, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, College of Tourism and Culinary Science, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China; (H.W.); (J.W.); (S.G.); (S.X.)
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Yangzhou Prepared Cuisine, Yangzhou 225127, China
- Chinese Cuisine Promotion and Research Base, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China
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Yu Z, Ye L, He Y, Lu X, Chen L, Dong S, Xiang X. Study on the formation pathways of characteristic volatiles in preserved egg yolk caused by lipid species during pickling. Food Chem 2023; 424:136310. [PMID: 37229895 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The formation of volatiles in high-fat foods is strongly influenced by the composition and structure of lipids. The relationship between key variable lipid species and characteristic volatiles were performed by lipidomics and flavoromics to resolve the pathways of volatiles in preserved egg yolk (PEY) during pickling. The results showed that the formation of nonanal and benzaldehyde at early stage possibly derived from oleic acid sited at Sn-1 in TG(18:1_18:2_20:4), Sn-2 in PE(22:6_18:1), and linoleic acid bonded at Sn-2 in TG(18:1_18:2_20:4), respectively. 1-octen-3-ol may be formed from linoleic acid located at Sn-2 in TG(18:1_18:2_20:4) and arachidonic acid sited at Sn-3 in TG(18:1_18:2_20:4). Indole was formed through TGs(16:0_16:1_20:1;16:1_18:1_22:1;23:0_18:1_18:1) at the later stage, and acetophenone through TGs(14:0_20:0_20:4;14:0_15:0_18:1; 16:0_16:0_22:6), PCs(24:0_18:1;O-18:1_18:2), PEs(P-18:1_20:4;P-18:1_22:6) and SPH(d18:0) during whole process of pickling. Our study provides a deep and precise insight for the formation pathways of characteristic volatiles in PEY through lipids degradation during pickling at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuosi Yu
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Lin Ye
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Tarim University, Alar, Xinjiang, China
| | - Yating He
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xinhong Lu
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Le Chen
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Shiqin Dong
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaole Xiang
- School of Food Science and Bioengineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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Liu R, Ma Y, Chen L, Lu C, Ge Q, Wu M, Xi J, Yu H. Effects of the addition of leucine on flavor and quality of sausage fermented by Lactobacillus fermentum YZU-06 and Staphylococcus saprophyticus CGMCC 3475. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1118907. [PMID: 36817110 PMCID: PMC9932774 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1118907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Methyl-branched aldehydes, especially 3-methylbutanal, have been reported to be perceived either as a malty or as a nutty/chocolate-like aroma and were considered an important flavor contributor in fermented meat products. Decomposition of leucine (Leu) by branched-chain amino acid transaminase (BACT) is a crucial step in the metabolism of Leu to 3-methylbutanal. This study was conducted to explore the effects of mixed-starter culture (Lactobacillus fermentum YZU-06 and Staphylococcus saprophyticus CGMCC 3475) and addition of Leu (0, 1, and 3 mM) on the flavor and quality of fermented sausages. The pH, water activity, texture profile analysis, color, counts of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and staphylococci, peptide, and flavor compounds were detected during fermentation. The results showed that the starter culture group increased hardness, elasticity, the counts of LAB and staphylococci, peptide content, volatile flavor compounds, as well as the sensorial scores of sausage, while decreasing pH, a w , and L* and b* values compared with the non-inoculation group. The mixed starter of adding with 3 mM Leu enhanced the content of 3-methylbutanal and overall flavor of fermented sausages. It is applicable to directionally produce methyl-branched aldehydes and improve the overall quality of fermented sausage by the addition of Leu and using starter of L. fermentum YZU-06 and S. saprophyticus CGMCC 3475.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yong Ma
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lei Chen
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chenyan Lu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qingfeng Ge
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mangang Wu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jun Xi
- Changshou Characteristic Meat Product Processing and Engineering Research Center of Jiangsu, Jiangsu Changshou Group Co., Ltd., Rugao, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hai Yu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China,*Correspondence: Hai Yu,
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Wang Z, Li Y, Qian C, Feng B, Xiong G, Jiang J, Chen Q. Processing quality and aroma characteristics of fresh noodles intermingled with large-leaf yellow tea powder. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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7
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Evaluation of flavor profile in blown pack spoilage meatballs via electronic nose and gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) integration. JOURNAL OF FOOD MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11694-022-01631-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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8
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Analysis of the relationship between microorganisms and flavour development in dry-cured grass carp by high-throughput sequencing, volatile flavour analysis and metabolomics. Food Chem 2022; 368:130889. [PMID: 34438175 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Complex microbial community plays an important role for flavor formation in traditional dry-cured grass carp. To investigate the correlation between microorganisms and flavour development, the bacterial diversity and flavour quality of dry-cured fish at different stages of fermentation were analysed using high-throughput sequencing, volatile flavour analysis and metabolomics. Cobetia, Staphylococcus and Ralstonia were the dominant genera in dry-cured fish, with relative abundances of 37.78%, 34.46% and 3.2%, respectively. The flavour of dry-cured fish samples varied as the abundance of aldehydes, alcohols, small peptides, FAAs and carboxylic acids showed a great increase during fermentation. Moreover, there were significant correlations (P < 0.05) between specific microorganisms and volatile indicators, as well as flavour metabolites. Staphylococcus, as the dominant bacterial genus, is involved in the mechanism of flavour formation in dry-cured fish during fermentation. This information is useful for elucidating the mechanism of flavour formation in dry-cured fish.
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Fan FY, Zhou SJ, Qian H, Zong BZ, Huang CS, Zhu RL, Guo HW, Gong SY. Effect of Yellowing Duration on the Chemical Profile of Yellow Tea and the Associations with Sensory Traits. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27030940. [PMID: 35164205 PMCID: PMC8839223 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The yellowing process is the crucial step to form the characteristic sensory and chemical properties of yellow tea. To investigate the chemical changes and the associations with sensory traits during yellowing, yellow teas with different yellowing times (0–13 h) were prepared for sensory evaluation and chemical analysis. The intensities of umami and green-tea aroma were reduced whereas sweet taste, mellow taste and sweet aroma were increased under long-term yellowing treatment. A total of 230 chemical constituents were determined, among which 25 non-volatiles and 42 volatiles were the key chemical contributors to sensory traits based on orthogonal partial least squares discrimination analysis (OPLS-DA), multiple factor analysis (MFA) and multidimensional alignment (MDA) analysis. The decrease in catechins, flavonol glycosides and caffeine and the increase in certain amino acids contributed to the elevated sweet taste and mellow taste. The sweet, woody and herbal odorants and the fermented and fatty odorants were the key contributors to the characteristic sensory feature of yellow tea with sweet aroma and over-oxidation aroma, including 7 ketones, 5 alcohols, 1 aldehyde, 5 acids, 4 esters, 5 hydrocarbons, 1 phenolic compound and 1 sulfocompound. This study reveals the sensory trait-related chemical changes in the yellowing process of tea, which provides a theoretical basis for the optimization of the yellowing process and quality control of yellow tea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang-Yuan Fan
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China; (F.-Y.F.); (S.-J.Z.); (B.-Z.Z.); (C.-S.H.); (R.-L.Z.); (H.-W.G.)
| | - Sen-Jie Zhou
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China; (F.-Y.F.); (S.-J.Z.); (B.-Z.Z.); (C.-S.H.); (R.-L.Z.); (H.-W.G.)
| | - Hong Qian
- Deqing Agricultural Technology Extension Center, 883 Zhongxingbei Road, Huzhou 313200, China;
| | - Bang-Zheng Zong
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China; (F.-Y.F.); (S.-J.Z.); (B.-Z.Z.); (C.-S.H.); (R.-L.Z.); (H.-W.G.)
| | - Chuang-Sheng Huang
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China; (F.-Y.F.); (S.-J.Z.); (B.-Z.Z.); (C.-S.H.); (R.-L.Z.); (H.-W.G.)
| | - Ruo-Lan Zhu
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China; (F.-Y.F.); (S.-J.Z.); (B.-Z.Z.); (C.-S.H.); (R.-L.Z.); (H.-W.G.)
| | - Hao-Wei Guo
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China; (F.-Y.F.); (S.-J.Z.); (B.-Z.Z.); (C.-S.H.); (R.-L.Z.); (H.-W.G.)
| | - Shu-Ying Gong
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China; (F.-Y.F.); (S.-J.Z.); (B.-Z.Z.); (C.-S.H.); (R.-L.Z.); (H.-W.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-(571)-88982519
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Wu H, Richards MP, Undeland I. Lipid oxidation and antioxidant delivery systems in muscle food. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2022; 21:1275-1299. [PMID: 35080797 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lipid oxidation accelerates quality deterioration in muscle-based foods (fish, red meat, and poultry), resulting in off-odors/flavors, color problems, texture defects, and safety concerns. Adding antioxidants is one approach to control lipid oxidation, and several delivery strategies have been applied, such as supplementing antioxidants to the feed, direct mixing into minces, or, for whole muscle pieces; spraying, glazing, and injection. However, some issues linked to these technologies hinder their wide utilization, such as low effectiveness, noncompatibility with clean label, and off-flavor. These shortcomings have promoted the development of new antioxidant delivery technologies. In this review, the main focus is on the principles, characteristics, and implementation of five novel antioxidant delivery methods in different types of muscle food products. Their advantages and drawbacks are also summarized, plus comments about future trends in this area. Among novel routes to deliver antioxidants to muscle foods are, for whole tissues, recyclable dipping solutions; for minces, encapsulation; and, for both minces and whole tissues, cross-processing with nonmuscle antioxidant-containing raw materials as well as applications of edible films/coatings and active packaging. Advantages of these technologies comprise, for example, low price, the possibility to control the antioxidant release rate, overcoming strong aromas from natural antioxidants, and allowing antioxidant-containing raw materials from the food industry to be valorized, providing an opportunity for more circular food production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haizhou Wu
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering-Food and Nutrition Science, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Mark P Richards
- Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Ingrid Undeland
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering-Food and Nutrition Science, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
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