1
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Villavicencio P, de la Malla C, López-Moliner J. Prediction of time to contact under perceptual and contextual uncertainties. J Vis 2024; 24:14. [PMID: 38904641 PMCID: PMC11204063 DOI: 10.1167/jov.24.6.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Accurately estimating time to contact (TTC) is crucial for successful interactions with moving objects, yet it is challenging under conditions of sensory and contextual uncertainty, such as occlusion. In this study, participants engaged in a prediction motion task, monitoring a target that moved rightward and an occluder. The participants' task was to press a key when they predicted the target would be aligned with the occluder's right edge. We manipulated sensory uncertainty by varying the visible and occluded periods of the target, thereby modulating the time available to integrate sensory information and the duration over which motion must be extrapolated. Additionally, contextual uncertainty was manipulated by having a predictable and unpredictable condition, meaning the occluder either reliably indicated where the moving target would disappear or provided no such indication. Results showed differences in accuracy between the predictable and unpredictable occluder conditions, with different eye movement patterns in each case. Importantly, the ratio of the time the target was visible, which allows for the integration of sensory information, to the occlusion time, which determines perceptual uncertainty, was a key factor in determining performance. This ratio is central to our proposed model, which provides a robust framework for understanding and predicting human performance in dynamic environments with varying degrees of uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Villavicencio
- Vision and Control of Action Group, Department of Cognition, Development, and Psychology of Education, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Cristina de la Malla
- Vision and Control of Action Group, Department of Cognition, Development, and Psychology of Education, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Joan López-Moliner
- Vision and Control of Action Group, Department of Cognition, Development, and Psychology of Education, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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2
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Elkin-Frankston S, Horner C, Alzahabi R, Cain MS. Characterizing motion prediction in small autonomous swarms. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2023; 106:103909. [PMID: 36242872 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2022.103909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The use of robotic swarms has become increasingly common in research, industrial, and military domains for tasks such as collective exploration, coordinated movement, and collective localization. Despite the expanded use of robotic swarms, little is known about how swarms are perceived by human operators. To characterize human-swarm interactions, we evaluate how operators perceive swarm characteristics, including movement patterns, control schemes, and occlusion. In a series of experiments manipulating movement patterns and control schemes, participants tracked swarms on a computer screen until they were occluded from view, at which point participants were instructed to estimate the spatiotemporal dynamics of the occluded swarm by mouse click. In addition to capturing mouse click responses, eye tracking was used to capture participants eye movements while visually tracking swarms. We observed that manipulating control schemes had minimal impact on the perception of swarms, and that swarms are easier to track when they are visible compared to when they were occluded. Regarding swarm movements, a complex pattern of data emerged. For example, eye tracking indicates that participants more closely track a swarm in an arc pattern compared to sinusoid and linear movement patterns. When evaluating behavioral click-responses, data show that time is underestimated, and that spatial accuracy is reduced in complex patterns. Results suggest that measures of performance may capture different patterns of behavior, underscoring the need for multiple measures to accurately characterize performance. In addition, the lack of generalizable data across different movement patterns highlights the complexity involved in the perception of swarms of objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth Elkin-Frankston
- Center for Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Medford, MA, USA; U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Soldier Center, Natick, MA, USA.
| | - Carlene Horner
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
| | - Reem Alzahabi
- Center for Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Medford, MA, USA.
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3
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Koshizawa R, Oki K, Takayose M. The presence of occlusion affects electroencephalogram activity patterns when the target is occluded and immediately before occlusion. Neuroreport 2022; 33:345-353. [DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000001792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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4
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Tammi T, Pekkanen J, Tuhkanen S, Oksama L, Lappi O. Tracking an occluded visual target with sequences of saccades. J Vis 2022; 22:9. [PMID: 35040924 PMCID: PMC8764209 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.1.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Gaze behavior during visual tracking consists of a combination of pursuit and saccadic movements. When the tracked object is intermittently occluded, the role of smooth pursuit is reduced, with a corresponding increase in the role of saccades. However, studies of visual tracking during occlusion have focused only on the first few saccades, usually with occlusion periods of less than 1 second in duration. We investigated tracking on a circular trajectory with random occlusions and found that an occluded object can be tracked reliably for up to several seconds with mainly anticipatory saccades and very little smooth pursuit. Furthermore, we investigated the accumulation of uncertainty in prediction and found that prediction errors seem to accumulate faster when an absolute reference frame is not available during tracking. We suggest that the observed saccadic tracking reflects the use of a time-based internal estimate of object position that is anchored to the environment via fixations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuisku Tammi
- Cognitive Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,National Defence University, Finland.,
| | - Jami Pekkanen
- Cognitive Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,
| | - Samuel Tuhkanen
- Cognitive Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,
| | - Lauri Oksama
- Human Performance Division, Finnish Defence Research Agency, Finland.,
| | - Otto Lappi
- Cognitive Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Traffic Research Unit, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,
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5
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The influence of time structure on prediction motion in visual and auditory modalities. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 84:1994-2001. [PMID: 34725775 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02369-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Usually people can estimate the correct position of a moving object even when it temporarily moves behind an occlusion. Studies have been performed on this type of occluded motion with prediction motion (PM) tasks in the laboratory. Previous publications have emphasized that people could use mental imagery or apply an oculomotor system to estimate the arrival of a moving stimulus at the target place. Nevertheless, these two ways cannot account for the performance difference under a different set of conditions. Our study tested the role of time structure in a time-to-collision (TTC) task using visual and auditory modalities. In the visual condition, the moving red bar travelled from left to right and was invisible during the entire course but flashed at the initial and the occluded points. The auditory condition and visual condition were alike, except that the flashes in the visual condition were changed to clicks at the initial and the occluded points. The results illustrated that participants' performance was better in the equal time structure condition. The comparison between the two sense modalities demonstrated a similar tendency, which suggested there could be common cognitive processes between visual and auditory modalities when participants took advantage of temporal cues to judge TTC.
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6
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Battaglini L, Ghiani A. Motion behind occluder: Amodal perception and visual motion extrapolation. VISUAL COGNITION 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2021.1943094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Battaglini
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Department of Physics and Astronomy “Galileo Galilei”, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Andrea Ghiani
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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7
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Zhao H, Straub D, Rothkopf CA. The visual control of interceptive steering: How do people steer a car to intercept a moving target? J Vis 2019; 19:11. [PMID: 31830240 DOI: 10.1167/19.14.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The visually guided interception of a moving target is a fundamental visuomotor task that humans can do with ease. But how humans carry out this task is still unclear despite numerous empirical investigations. Measurements of angular variables during human interception have suggested three possible strategies: the pursuit strategy, the constant bearing angle strategy, and the constant target-heading strategy. Here, we review previous experimental paradigms and show that some of them do not allow one to distinguish among the three strategies. Based on this analysis, we devised a virtual driving task that allows investigating which of the three strategies best describes human interception. Crucially, we measured participants' steering, head, and gaze directions over time for three different target velocities. Subjects initially aligned head and gaze in the direction of the car's heading. When the target appeared, subjects centered their gaze on the target, pointed their head slightly off the heading direction toward the target, and maintained an approximately constant target-heading angle, whose magnitude varied across participants, while the target's bearing angle continuously changed. With a second condition, in which the target was partially occluded, we investigated several alternative hypotheses about participants' visual strategies. Overall, the results suggest that interceptive steering is best described by the constant target-heading strategy and that gaze and head are coordinated to continuously acquire visual information to achieve successful interception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaiyong Zhao
- Institute of Psychology, Technical University Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Dominik Straub
- Institute of Psychology, Technical University Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Constantin A Rothkopf
- Institute of Psychology, Technical University Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany.,Center for Cognitive Science, Technical University Darmstadt, Germany.,Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, Goethe University, Germany
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8
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Delle Monache S, Lacquaniti F, Bosco G. Ocular tracking of occluded ballistic trajectories: Effects of visual context and of target law of motion. J Vis 2019; 19:13. [PMID: 30952164 DOI: 10.1167/19.4.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In tracking a moving target, the visual context may provide cues for an observer to interpret the causal nature of the target motion and extract features to which the visual system is weakly sensitive, such as target acceleration. This information could be critical when vision of the target is temporarily impeded, requiring visual motion extrapolation processes. Here we investigated how visual context influences ocular tracking of motion either congruent or not with natural gravity. To this end, 28 subjects tracked computer-simulated ballistic trajectories either perturbed in the descending segment with altered gravity effects (0g/2g) or retaining natural-like motion (1g). Shortly after the perturbation (550 ms), targets disappeared for either 450 or 650 ms and became visible again until landing. Target motion occurred with either quasi-realistic pictorial cues or a uniform background, presented in counterbalanced order. We analyzed saccadic and pursuit movements after 0g and 2g target-motion perturbations and for corresponding intervals of unperturbed 1g trajectories, as well as after corresponding occlusions. Moreover, we considered the eye-to-target distance at target reappearance. Tracking parameters differed significantly between scenarios: With a neutral background, eye movements did not depend consistently on target motion, whereas with pictorial background they showed significant dependence, denoting better tracking of accelerated targets. These results suggest that oculomotor control is tuned to realistic properties of the visual scene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Delle Monache
- Department of Systems Medicine, Neuroscience Section, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Lacquaniti
- Department of Systems Medicine, Neuroscience Section, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Bosco
- Department of Systems Medicine, Neuroscience Section, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
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9
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Damasse JB, Perrinet LU, Madelain L, Montagnini A. Reinforcement effects in anticipatory smooth eye movements. J Vis 2019; 18:14. [PMID: 30347101 DOI: 10.1167/18.11.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
When predictive information about target motion is available, anticipatory smooth pursuit eye movements (aSPEM) are consistently generated before target appearance, thereby reducing the typical sensorimotor delay between target motion onset and foveation. By manipulating the probability for target motion direction, we were able to bias the direction and mean velocity of aSPEM. This suggests that motion-direction expectancy has a strong effect on the initiation of anticipatory movements. To further understand the nature of anticipatory smooth eye movements, we investigated different effects of reinforcement on aSPEM. In a first experiment, the reinforcement was contingent to a particular anticipatory behavior. A monetary reward was associated to a criterion-matching anticipatory velocity as estimated online during the gap before target motion onset. Our results showed a small but significant effect of behavior-contingent monetary reward on aSPEM. In a second experiment, the proportion of rewarded trials was manipulated across motion directions (right vs. left) independently from participants' behavior. Our results indicate that a bias in expected reward does not systematically affect anticipatory eye movements. Overall, these findings strengthen the notion that anticipatory eye movements can be considered as an operant behavior (similar to visually guided ones), whereas the expectancy for a noncontingent reward cannot efficiently bias them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Bernard Damasse
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, Marseille, France
| | - Laurent U Perrinet
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, Marseille, France
| | - Laurent Madelain
- University of Lille Nord de France, CNRS, SCALAB UMR 9193, Lille, France
| | - Anna Montagnini
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, Marseille, France
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10
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Zheng R, Maraj BKV. The effect of concurrent hand movement on estimated time to contact in a prediction motion task. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:1953-1962. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5276-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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11
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Abstract
Information from preceding trials of cognitive tasks can bias performance in the current trial, a phenomenon referred to as interference. Subjects performing visual working memory tasks exhibit interference in their responses: the recalled target location is biased in the direction of the target presented on the previous trial. We present modeling work that develops a probabilistic inference model of this history-dependent bias, and links our probabilistic model to computations of a recurrent network wherein short-term facilitation accounts for the observed bias. Network connectivity is reshaped dynamically during each trial, generating predictions from prior trial observations. Applying timescale separation methods, we obtain a low-dimensional description of the trial-to-trial bias based on the history of target locations. Furthermore, we demonstrate task protocols for which our model with facilitation performs better than a model with static connectivity: repetitively presented targets are better retained in working memory than targets drawn from uncorrelated sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary P Kilpatrick
- Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA.
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA.
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12
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13
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Makin AD. Choosing the speed of dynamic mental simulations. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2017; 236:193-210. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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14
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Battaglini L, Casco C. Contribution of Visuospatial and Motion-Tracking to Invisible Motion. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1369. [PMID: 27683566 PMCID: PMC5022002 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
People experience an object's motion even when it is occluded. We investigate the processing of invisible motion in three experiments. Observers saw a moving circle passing behind an invisible, irregular hendecagonal polygon and had to respond as quickly as possible when the target had “just reappeared” from behind the occluder. Without explicit cues allowing the end of each of the eight hidden trajectories to be predicted (length ranging between 4.7 and 5 deg), we found as expected, if visuospatial attention was involved, anticipation errors, providing that information on pre-occluder motion was available. This indicates that the observers, rather than simply responding when they saw the target, tended to anticipate its reappearance (Experiment 1). The new finding is that, with a fixation mark indicating the center of the invisible trajectory, a linear relationship between the physical and judged occlusion duration is found, but not without it (Experiment 2) or with a fixation mark varying in position from trial to trial (Experiment 3). We interpret the role of central fixation in the differences in distinguishing trajectories smaller than 0.3 deg, by suggesting that it reflects spatiotemporal computation and motion-tracking. These two mechanisms allow visual imagery to form of the point symmetrical to that of the disappearance, with respect to fixation, and then for the occluded moving target to be tracked up to this point.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Battaglini
- Department of General Psychology, Perception, and Psychophysics, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Clara Casco
- Department of General Psychology, Perception, and Psychophysics, University of Padova Padova, Italy
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15
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Bourrelly C, Quinet J, Cavanagh P, Goffart L. Learning the trajectory of a moving visual target and evolution of its tracking in the monkey. J Neurophysiol 2016; 116:2739-2751. [PMID: 27683886 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00519.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
An object moving in the visual field triggers a saccade that brings its image onto the fovea. It is followed by a combination of slow eye movements and catch-up saccades that try to keep the target image on the fovea as long as possible. The accuracy of this ability to track the "here-and-now" location of a visual target contrasts with the spatiotemporally distributed nature of its encoding in the brain. We show in six experimentally naive monkeys how this performance is acquired and gradually evolves during successive daily sessions. During the early exposure, the tracking is mostly saltatory, made of relatively large saccades separated by low eye velocity episodes, demonstrating that accurate (here and now) pursuit is not spontaneous and that gaze direction lags behind its location most of the time. Over the sessions, while the pursuit velocity is enhanced, the gaze is more frequently directed toward the current target location as a consequence of a 25% reduction in the number of catch-up saccades and a 37% reduction in size (for the first saccade). This smoothing is observed at several scales: during the course of single trials, across the set of trials within a session, and over successive sessions. We explain the neurophysiological processes responsible for this combined evolution of saccades and pursuit in the absence of stringent training constraints. More generally, our study shows that the oculomotor system can be used to discover the neural mechanisms underlying the ability to synchronize a motor effector with a dynamic external event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Bourrelly
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, UMR 7289, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France; and.,Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception, UMR 8242, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Julie Quinet
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, UMR 7289, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France; and
| | - Patrick Cavanagh
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception, UMR 8242, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Goffart
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, UMR 7289, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France; and
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16
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Lappi O. Eye movements in the wild: Oculomotor control, gaze behavior & frames of reference. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 69:49-68. [PMID: 27461913 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the brain's capacity to encode complex visual information from a scene and to transform it into a coherent perception of 3D space and into well-coordinated motor commands are among the outstanding questions in the study of integrative brain function. Eye movement methodologies have allowed us to begin addressing these questions in increasingly naturalistic tasks, where eye and body movements are ubiquitous and, therefore, the applicability of most traditional neuroscience methods restricted. This review explores foundational issues in (1) how oculomotor and motor control in lab experiments extrapolates into more complex settings and (2) how real-world gaze behavior in turn decomposes into more elementary eye movement patterns. We review the received typology of oculomotor patterns in laboratory tasks, and how they map onto naturalistic gaze behavior (or not). We discuss the multiple coordinate systems needed to represent visual gaze strategies, how the choice of reference frame affects the description of eye movements, and the related but conceptually distinct issue of coordinate transformations between internal representations within the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otto Lappi
- Cognitive Science, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, PO BOX 9, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
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17
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Motor system contribution to action prediction: Temporal accuracy depends on motor experience. Cognition 2016; 148:71-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2015.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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18
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Ego C, Yüksel D, Orban de Xivry JJ, Lefèvre P. Development of internal models and predictive abilities for visual tracking during childhood. J Neurophysiol 2016; 115:301-9. [PMID: 26510757 PMCID: PMC4760460 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00534.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The prediction of the consequences of our own actions through internal models is an essential component of motor control. Previous studies showed improvement of anticipatory behaviors with age for grasping, drawing, and postural control. Since these actions require visual and proprioceptive feedback, these improvements might reflect both the development of internal models and the feedback control. In contrast, visual tracking of a temporarily invisible target gives specific markers of prediction and internal models for eye movements. Therefore, we recorded eye movements in 50 children (aged 5-19 yr) and in 10 adults, who were asked to pursue a visual target that is temporarily blanked. Results show that the youngest children (5-7 yr) have a general oculomotor behavior in this task, qualitatively similar to the one observed in adults. However, the overall performance of older subjects in terms of accuracy at target reappearance and variability in their behavior was much better than the youngest children. This late maturation of predictive mechanisms with age was reflected into the development of the accuracy of the internal models governing the synergy between the saccadic and pursuit systems with age. Altogether, we hypothesize that the maturation of the interaction between smooth pursuit and saccades that relies on internal models of the eye and target displacement is related to the continuous maturation of the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Ego
- Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium; Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Demet Yüksel
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium; Ophthalmology Department, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Brussels, Belgium; and
| | - Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
- Department of Kinesiology, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Philippe Lefèvre
- Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium; Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium;
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19
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Meyer M, Bekkering H, Haartsen R, Stapel J, Hunnius S. The role of action prediction and inhibitory control for joint action coordination in toddlers. J Exp Child Psychol 2015; 139:203-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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20
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Bosco G, Monache SD, Gravano S, Indovina I, La Scaleia B, Maffei V, Zago M, Lacquaniti F. Filling gaps in visual motion for target capture. Front Integr Neurosci 2015; 9:13. [PMID: 25755637 PMCID: PMC4337337 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2015.00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A remarkable challenge our brain must face constantly when interacting with the environment is represented by ambiguous and, at times, even missing sensory information. This is particularly compelling for visual information, being the main sensory system we rely upon to gather cues about the external world. It is not uncommon, for example, that objects catching our attention may disappear temporarily from view, occluded by visual obstacles in the foreground. Nevertheless, we are often able to keep our gaze on them throughout the occlusion or even catch them on the fly in the face of the transient lack of visual motion information. This implies that the brain can fill the gaps of missing sensory information by extrapolating the object motion through the occlusion. In recent years, much experimental evidence has been accumulated that both perceptual and motor processes exploit visual motion extrapolation mechanisms. Moreover, neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies have identified brain regions potentially involved in the predictive representation of the occluded target motion. Within this framework, ocular pursuit and manual interceptive behavior have proven to be useful experimental models for investigating visual extrapolation mechanisms. Studies in these fields have pointed out that visual motion extrapolation processes depend on manifold information related to short-term memory representations of the target motion before the occlusion, as well as to longer term representations derived from previous experience with the environment. We will review recent oculomotor and manual interception literature to provide up-to-date views on the neurophysiological underpinnings of visual motion extrapolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianfranco Bosco
- Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy ; Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy ; Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy
| | - Sergio Delle Monache
- Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy ; Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy
| | - Silvio Gravano
- Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy ; Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy
| | - Iole Indovina
- Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy ; Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy
| | - Barbara La Scaleia
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Maffei
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy
| | - Myrka Zago
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Lacquaniti
- Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy ; Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy ; Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy
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21
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Eye movements and manual interception of ballistic trajectories: effects of law of motion perturbations and occlusions. Exp Brain Res 2014; 233:359-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-4120-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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22
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Diaz G, Cooper J, Hayhoe M. Memory and prediction in natural gaze control. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20130064. [PMID: 24018726 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to stimulus properties and task factors, memory is an important determinant of the allocation of attention and gaze in the natural world. One way that the role of memory is revealed is by predictive eye movements. Both smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements demonstrate predictive effects based on previous experience. We have previously shown that unskilled subjects make highly accurate predictive saccades to the anticipated location of a ball prior to a bounce in a virtual racquetball setting. In this experiment, we examined this predictive behaviour. We asked whether the period after the bounce provides subjects with visual information about the ball trajectory that is used to programme the pursuit movement initiated when the ball passes through the fixation point. We occluded a 100 ms period of the ball's trajectory immediately after the bounce, and found very little effect on the subsequent pursuit movement. Subjects did not appear to modify their strategy to prolong the fixation. Neither were we able to find an effect on interception performance. Thus, it is possible that the occluded trajectory information is not critical for subsequent pursuit, and subjects may use an estimate of the ball's trajectory to programme pursuit. These results provide further support for the role of memory in eye movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Diaz
- Center for Perceptual Systems, University of Texas Austin, , 1 University Station, A8000, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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23
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Bennett SJ, Benguigui N. Is acceleration used for ocular pursuit and spatial estimation during prediction motion? PLoS One 2013; 8:e63382. [PMID: 23696822 PMCID: PMC3656031 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we examined ocular pursuit and spatial estimation in a linear prediction motion task that emphasized extrapolation of occluded accelerative object motion. Results from the ocular response up to occlusion showed that there was evidence in the eye position, velocity and acceleration data that participants were attempting to pursue the moving object in accord with the veridical motion properties. They then attempted to maintain ocular pursuit of the randomly-ordered accelerative object motion during occlusion but this was not ideal, and resulted in undershoot of eye position and velocity at the moment of object reappearance. In spatial estimation there was a general bias, with participants less likely to report object reappearance being behind than ahead of the expected position. In addition, participants’ spatial estimation did not take into account the effects of object acceleration. Logistic regression indicated that spatial estimation was best predicted for the majority of participants by the difference between actual object reappearance position and an extrapolation based on pre-occlusion velocity. In combination, and in light of previous work, we interpret these findings as showing that eye movements are scaled in accord with the effects of object acceleration but do not directly specify information for accurate spatial estimation in prediction motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Bennett
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
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24
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Enhanced top-down control during pursuit eye tracking in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2013; 263:223-31. [PMID: 22639244 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-012-0332-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in sensorimotor processing and predictive mechanisms have both been proposed as the primary cause of eye tracking deficits in schizophrenia. 20 schizophrenia patients and 20 healthy controls were assessed on blocks of predictably moving visual targets at constant speeds of 10, 15 or 30°/s. To assess internal drive to the eye movement system based on predictions about the ongoing target movement, targets were blanked off for either 666 or 1,000 ms during the ongoing pursuit movement in additional conditions. Main parameters of interest were eye deceleration after extinction of the visual target and residual eye velocity during blanking intervals. Eye deceleration after target extinction, reflecting persistence of predictive signals, was slower in patients than in controls, implying greater rather than diminished utilization of predictive mechanisms for pursuit in schizophrenia. Further, residual gain was not impaired in patients indicating a basic integrity of internal predictive models. Pursuit velocity gain in patients was reduced in all conditions with visible targets replicating previous findings about a sensorimotor transformation deficit in schizophrenia. A pattern of slower eye deceleration and unimpaired residual gain during blanking intervals implies greater adherence to top-down predictive models for pursuit tracking in schizophrenia. This suggests that predictive modeling is relatively intact in schizophrenia and that the primary cause of abnormal visual pursuit is impaired sensorimotor transformation of the retinal error signal needed for the maintenance of accurate visually driven pursuit. This implies that disruption in extrastriate and sensorimotor systems rather than frontostriatal predictive mechanisms may underlie this widely reported endophenotypes for schizophrenia.
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25
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Diaz G, Cooper J, Rothkopf C, Hayhoe M. Saccades to future ball location reveal memory-based prediction in a virtual-reality interception task. J Vis 2013; 13:13.1.20. [PMID: 23325347 DOI: 10.1167/13.1.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite general agreement that prediction is a central aspect of perception, there is relatively little evidence concerning the basis on which visual predictions are made. Although both saccadic and pursuit eye-movements reveal knowledge of the future position of a moving visual target, in many of these studies targets move along simple trajectories through a fronto-parallel plane. Here, using a naturalistic and racquet-based interception task in a virtual environment, we demonstrate that subjects make accurate predictions of visual target motion, even when targets follow trajectories determined by the complex dynamics of physical interactions and the head and body are unrestrained. Furthermore, we found that, following a change in ball elasticity, subjects were able to accurately adjust their prebounce predictions of the ball's post-bounce trajectory. This suggests that prediction is guided by experience-based models of how information in the visual image will change over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Diaz
- Center for Perceptual Systems, University of Texas Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
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26
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Makin ADJ, Poliakoff E, Ackerley R, El-Deredy W. Covert tracking: a combined ERP and fixational eye movement study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38479. [PMID: 22719893 PMCID: PMC3374826 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention can be directed to particular spatial locations, or to objects that appear at anticipated points in time. While most work has focused on spatial or temporal attention in isolation, we investigated covert tracking of smoothly moving objects, which requires continuous coordination of both. We tested two propositions about the neural and cognitive basis of this operation: first that covert tracking is a right hemisphere function, and second that pre-motor components of the oculomotor system are responsible for driving covert spatial attention during tracking. We simultaneously recorded event related potentials (ERPs) and eye position while participants covertly tracked dots that moved leftward or rightward at 12 or 20°/s. ERPs were sensitive to the direction of target motion. Topographic development in the leftward motion was a mirror image of the rightward motion, suggesting that both hemispheres contribute equally to covert tracking. Small shifts in eye position were also lateralized according to the direction of target motion, implying covert activation of the oculomotor system. The data addresses two outstanding questions about the nature of visuospatial tracking. First, covert tracking is reliant upon a symmetrical frontoparietal attentional system, rather than being right lateralized. Second, this same system controls both pursuit eye movements and covert tracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis D. J. Makin
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Ellen Poliakoff
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Rochelle Ackerley
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Wael El-Deredy
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
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27
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Makin ADJ, Poliakoff E. Do common systems control eye movements and motion extrapolation? Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2011; 64:1327-43. [PMID: 21480079 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2010.548562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
People are able to judge the current position of occluded moving objects. This operation is known as motion extrapolation. It has previously been suggested that motion extrapolation is independent of the oculomotor system. Here we revisited this question by measuring eye position while participants completed two types of motion extrapolation task. In one task, a moving visual target travelled rightwards, disappeared, then reappeared further along its trajectory. Participants discriminated correct reappearance times from incorrect (too early or too late) with a two-alternative forced-choice button press. In the second task, the target travelled rightwards behind a visible, rectangular occluder, and participants pressed a button at the time when they judged it should reappear. In both tasks, performance was significantly different under fixation as compared to free eye movement conditions. When eye movements were permitted, eye movements during occlusion were related to participants' judgements. Finally, even when participants were required to fixate, small changes in eye position around fixation (<2°) were influenced by occluded target motion. These results all indicate that overlapping systems control eye movements and judgements on motion extrapolation tasks. This has implications for understanding the mechanism underlying motion extrapolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis D J Makin
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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28
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Madelain L, Paeye C, Darcheville JC. Operant control of human eye movements. Behav Processes 2011; 87:142-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2011.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Revised: 02/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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29
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Internally generated error signals in monkey frontal eye field during an inferred motion task. J Neurosci 2010; 30:11612-23. [PMID: 20810882 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2977-10.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An internal model for predictive saccades in frontal cortex was investigated by recording neurons in monkey frontal eye field (FEF) during an inferred motion task. Monkeys were trained to make saccades to the extrapolated position of a small moving target that was rendered temporarily invisible and whose trajectory was altered. On approximately two-thirds of the trials, monkeys made multiple saccades while the target was invisible. Primary saccades were correlated with extrapolated target position. Secondary saccades significantly reduced residual errors resulting from imperfect accuracy of the first saccade. These observations suggest that the second saccade was corrective. Because there was no visual feedback, corrective saccades could only be driven by an internally generated error signal. Neuronal activity in the frontal eye field was directionally tuned before both primary and secondary saccades. Separate subpopulations of cells encoded either saccade direction or direction error before the second saccade. These results suggest that FEF neurons encode the error after the first saccade, as well as the direction of the second saccade. Hence, FEF appears to contribute to detecting and correcting movement errors based on internally generated signals.
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30
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Abstract
The aim of the current study was to identify strategies used in recovering dynamic objects after long interruptions. The primary task in this study required participants to track a set of six target dots amongst eight distracter dots and locate them after a 30 second interruption. In one condition the dots reappeared in their displaced locations (moving condition) while in the other condition they reappeared in their original pre-interruption locations (not-moving condition). Consistent with previous research we found that the not-moving condition had significantly better accuracy than the moving condition. Above chance accuracy was found in both conditions. Reaction time data provided further insight into the strategies used to recover displaced objects. In the end, it was concluded that pre-interruption location is the most salient and easily remembered characteristic. Reaction time data did provide preliminary support for the use of on-line tracking during interruptions, although such abilities seem to be limited in capacity to approximately three targets. The results of this research have wide spread implications to domains requiring constant tracking of objects such as air traffic control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Avi Parush
- Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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31
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Bennett SJ, Orban de Xivry JJ, Lefèvre P, Barnes GR. Oculomotor prediction of accelerative target motion during occlusion: long-term and short-term effects. Exp Brain Res 2010; 204:493-504. [PMID: 20556369 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2313-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the influence of long-term (i.e., between-trial) and short-term (i.e., within-trial) predictive mechanisms on ocular pursuit during transient occlusion. To this end, we compared ocular pursuit of accelerative and decelerative target motion in trials that were presented in random or blocked-order. Catch trials in which target acceleration was unexpectedly modified were randomly interleaved in blocked-order trials. Irrespective of trial order, eye velocity decayed following target occlusion and then recovered towards the different levels of target velocity at reappearance. However, the recovery was better scaled in blocked-order trials than random-order trials. In blocked-order trials only, the reduced gain of smooth pursuit during occlusion was compensated by a change in saccade amplitude and resulted in total eye displacement (TED) that was well matched to target displacement. Subsidiary analysis indicated that three repeats of blocked-order trials was sufficient for participants to modify eye displacement compared to that exhibited in random-order trials, although more trials were required before end-occlusion eye velocity was better scaled. Finally, we found that participants exhibited evidence of a scaled response to an unexpected change in target acceleration (i.e., catch trials), although there were also transfer effects from the preceding blocked-order trials. These findings are consistent with the suggestion that on-the-fly prediction (short-term effect) is combined with memorized information from previous trials (long-term effect) to generate a persistent and veridical prediction of occluded target motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Bennett
- Research Institute for Exercise and Sport Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK.
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32
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Benguigui N, Bennett SJ. Ocular pursuit and the estimation of time-to-contact with accelerating objects in prediction motion are controlled independently based on first-order estimates. Exp Brain Res 2009; 202:327-39. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-009-2139-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Accepted: 12/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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33
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Extrapolation of vertical target motion through a brief visual occlusion. Exp Brain Res 2009; 201:365-84. [PMID: 19882150 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-009-2041-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2009] [Accepted: 10/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
It is known that arbitrary target accelerations along the horizontal generally are extrapolated much less accurately than target speed through a visual occlusion. The extent to which vertical accelerations can be extrapolated through an occlusion is much less understood. Here, we presented a virtual target rapidly descending on a blank screen with different motion laws. The target accelerated under gravity (1g), decelerated under reversed gravity (-1g), or moved at constant speed (0g). Probability of each type of acceleration differed across experiments: one acceleration at a time, or two to three different accelerations randomly intermingled could be presented. After a given viewing period, the target disappeared for a brief, variable period until arrival (occluded trials) or it remained visible throughout (visible trials). Subjects were asked to press a button when the target arrived at destination. We found that, in visible trials, the average performance with 1g targets could be better or worse than that with 0g targets depending on the acceleration probability, and both were always superior to the performance with -1g targets. By contrast, the average performance with 1g targets was always superior to that with 0g and -1g targets in occluded trials. Moreover, the response times of 1g trials tended to approach the ideal value with practice in occluded protocols. To gain insight into the mechanisms of extrapolation, we modeled the response timing based on different types of threshold models. We found that occlusion was accompanied by an adaptation of model parameters (threshold time and central processing time) in a direction that suggests a strategy oriented to the interception of 1g targets at the expense of the interception of the other types of tested targets. We argue that the prediction of occluded vertical motion may incorporate an expectation of gravity effects.
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34
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Makin AD, Poliakoff E, El-Deredy W. Tracking visible and occluded targets: Changes in event related potentials during motion extrapolation. Neuropsychologia 2009; 47:1128-37. [PMID: 19350707 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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35
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The effect of previously viewed velocities on motion extrapolation. Vision Res 2008; 48:1884-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2008.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2008] [Revised: 05/29/2008] [Accepted: 05/31/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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36
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Aydın M, Herzog MH, Öğmen H. Perceived speed differences explain apparent compression in slit viewing. Vision Res 2008; 48:1603-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2008.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2007] [Revised: 04/23/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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37
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Shikauchi M, Ishii S, Shibata T. Prediction of aperiodic target sequences by saccades. Behav Brain Res 2008; 189:325-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2007] [Revised: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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38
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Bennett SJ, Orban de Xivry JJ, Barnes GR, Lefèvre P. Target Acceleration Can Be Extracted and Represented Within the Predictive Drive to Ocular Pursuit. J Neurophysiol 2007; 98:1405-14. [PMID: 17553954 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00132.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Given sufficient exposure to stimulus presentation, the oculomotor system generates a representation of the stimulus characteristics, which is then used to predict the upcoming target motion. In addition to compensating for the perceptual-motor delay, these predictive processes perpetuate eye motion during a transient occlusion and compensate for the loss of visual input. At present, however, it is not well understood whether and how the oculomotor system extracts and represents target acceleration for subsequent predictive control. To this end, we used a target occlusion paradigm where both position and velocity of the target during the occlusion and at reappearance could not be predicted without extracting target acceleration before target disappearance. We found that the oculomotor response during the blanking period was not influenced by target acceleration when the initial exposure was 200 ms. However, smooth and saccadic eye movements did discriminate between the different levels of acceleration after an initial 500- or 800-ms exposure. In the event that the smooth response during the occlusion did not match well the target trajectory and thus eliminate a developing displacement error, there was an increased saccadic displacement. Still, the combined response during the blanking period did not eliminate retinal slip and position error at target reappearance. These results indicate that information on target acceleration can be extracted on-line, during pursuit of a visible ramp, and then used to drive a predictive oculomotor response in the absence of visual input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Bennett
- Research Institute for Exercise and Sport Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Henry Cotton Campus, L3 2ET, Liverpool, UK.
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39
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Haller S, Fasler D, Ohlendorf S, Radue EW, Greenlee MW. Neural activation associated with corrective saccades during tasks with fixation, pursuit and saccades. Exp Brain Res 2007; 184:83-94. [PMID: 17717657 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-007-1077-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2006] [Accepted: 07/21/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Corrective saccades are small eye movements that redirect gaze whenever the actual eye position differs from the desired eye position. In contrast to various forms of saccades including pro-saccades, recentering-saccades or memory guided saccades, corrective saccades have been widely neglected so far. The fMRI correlates of corrective saccades were studied that spontaneously occurred during fixation, pursuit or saccadic tasks. Eyetracking was performed during the fMRI data acquisition with a fiber-optic device. Using a combined block and event-related design, we isolated the cortical activations associated with visually guided fixation, pursuit or saccadic tasks and compared these to the activation associated with the occurrence of corrective saccades. Neuronal activations in anterior inferior cingulate, bilateral middle and inferior frontal gyri, bilateral insula and cerebellum are most likely specifically associated with corrective saccades. Additionally, overlapping activations with the established pro-saccade and, to a lesser extent, pursuit network were present. The presented results imply that corrective saccades represent a potential systematic confound in eye-movement studies, in particular because the frequency of spontaneously occurring corrective saccades significantly differed between fixation, pursuit and pro-saccades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Haller
- Institute of Radiology, Department of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Basel, CH 4031, Basel, Switzerland.
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40
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Bertenthal BI, Longo MR, Kenny S. Phenomenal permanence and the development of predictive tracking in infancy. Child Dev 2007; 78:350-63. [PMID: 17328710 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01002.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The perceived spatiotemporal continuity of objects depends on the way they appear and disappear as they move in the spatial layout. This study investigated whether infants' predictive tracking of a briefly occluded object is sensitive to the manner by which the object disappears and reappears. Five-, 7-, and 9-month-old infants were shown a ball rolling across a visual scene and briefly disappearing via kinetic occlusion, instantaneous disappearance, implosion, or virtual occlusion. Three different measures converged to show that predictive tracking increased with age and that infants were most likely to anticipate the reappearance of the ball following kinetic occlusion. These results suggest that infants' knowledge of the permanence and nonpermanence of objects is embodied in their predictive tracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bennett I Bertenthal
- The University of Chicago, Department of Psychology, 5848 South, University Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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41
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Voss HU, McCandliss BD, Ghajar J, Suh M. A quantitative synchronization model for smooth pursuit target tracking. BIOLOGICAL CYBERNETICS 2007; 96:309-22. [PMID: 17082951 DOI: 10.1007/s00422-006-0116-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2005] [Accepted: 10/04/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We propose a quantitative model for human smooth pursuit tracking of a continuously moving visual target which is based on synchronization of an internal expectancy model of the target position coupled to the retinal target signal. The model predictions are tested in a smooth circular pursuit eye tracking experiment with transient target blanking of variable duration. In subjects with a high tracking accuracy, the model accounts for smooth pursuit and repeatedly reproduces quantitatively characteristic patterns of the eye dynamics during target blanking. In its simplest form, the model has only one free parameter, a coupling constant. An extended model with a second parameter, a time delay or memory term, accounts for predictive smooth pursuit eye movements which advance the target. The model constitutes an example of synchronization of a complex biological system with perceived sensory signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning U Voss
- Citigroup Biomedical Imaging Center, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, P.O. Box 234, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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42
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Nagel M, Sprenger A, Nitschke M, Zapf S, Heide W, Binkofski F, Lencer R. Different extraretinal neuronal mechanisms of smooth pursuit eye movements in schizophrenia: An fMRI study. Neuroimage 2007; 34:300-9. [PMID: 17011791 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2006] [Revised: 08/23/2006] [Accepted: 08/24/2006] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM) are necessary to follow slowly moving targets while maintaining foveal fixation. In about 50% of schizophrenic patients SPEM velocity is reduced. In this study we were interested in identifying the cortical mechanisms associated with extraretinal processing of SPEM in schizophrenic patients. During condition A, patients and healthy subjects had to pursue a constantly visible target (10 degrees /s). During condition B the target was blanked out for 1000 ms while subjects were instructed to continue SPEM. Eye movement data were assessed during scanning sessions by a limbus tracker. During condition A, reduced SPEM velocity in patients was associated with reduced activation of the right ventral premotor cortex and increased activation of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the right thalamus and the Crus II of the left cerebellar hemisphere. During condition B, SPEM velocity was reduced to a similar extent in both groups. While in patients a decrease in activation was observed in the right cerebellar area VIIIA, the activation of the right anterior cingulate, the right superior temporal cortex, and the bilateral frontal eye fields was increased. The results implicate that schizophrenic patients employ different strategies during SPEM both with and without target blanking than healthy subjects. These strategies predominantly involve extraretinal mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Nagel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Luebeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23538 Luebeck, Germany
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43
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Mrotek LA, Soechting JF. Predicting curvilinear target motion through an occlusion. Exp Brain Res 2006; 178:99-114. [PMID: 17053910 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-006-0717-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/14/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
When a tracked target is occluded transiently, extraretinal signals are known to maintain smooth pursuit, albeit with a reduced gain. The extent to which extraretinal signals incorporate predictions of time-varying behavior, such as gradual changes in target direction, is not known. Three experiments were conducted to examine this question. In the experiments, subjects tracked a target that initially moved along a straight path, then (briefly) followed the arc of a circle, before it disappeared behind a visible occlusion. In the first experiment, the target did not emerge from the occlusion and subjects were asked to point to the location where they thought the target would have emerged. Gaze and pointing behaviors demonstrated that most of the subjects predicted that the target would follow a linear path through the occlusion. The direction of this extrapolated path was the same as the final visible target direction. In the second set of experiments, the target did emerge after following a curvilinear path through the occlusion, and subjects were asked to track the target with their eyes. Gaze behaviors indicated that, in this experimental condition, the subjects predicted curvilinear target motion while the target was occluded. Saccades were directed to the unseen curvilinear path and pursuit continued to follow this same path at a reduced speed in the occlusion. Importantly, the direction of smooth pursuit continued to change throughout the occlusion. Smooth pursuit angular velocity was maintained for approximately 200 ms following target disappearance. The results of the experiments indicate that extraretinal signals indeed incorporate cognitive expectations about the time-varying behavior of target motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh A Mrotek
- Department of Kinesiology and Health, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, 108 Albee Hall, 800 Algoma Boulevard, Oshkosh, WI 54901-8630, USA.
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Orban de Xivry JJ, Bennett SJ, Lefèvre P, Barnes GR. Evidence for Synergy Between Saccades and Smooth Pursuit During Transient Target Disappearance. J Neurophysiol 2006; 95:418-27. [PMID: 16162830 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00596.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual tracking of moving objects requires prediction to compensate for visual delays and minimize mismatches between eye and target position and velocity. In everyday life, objects often disappear behind an occluder, and prediction is required to align eye and target at reappearance. Earlier studies investigating eye motion during target blanking showed that eye velocity first decayed after disappearance but was sustained or often recovered in a predictive way. Furthermore, saccades were directed toward the unseen target trajectory and therefore appeared to correct for position errors resulting from eye velocity decay. To investigate the synergy between smooth and saccadic eye movements, this study used a target blanking paradigm where both position and velocity of the target at reappearance could vary independently but were presented repeatedly to facilitate prediction. We found that eye velocity at target reappearance was only influenced by expected target velocity, whereas saccades responded to the expected change of target position at reappearance. Moreover, subjects exhibited on-line adaptation, on a trial-by-trial basis, between smooth and saccadic components; i.e., saccades compensated for variability of smooth eye displacement during the blanking period such that gaze at target reappearance was independent of the level of smooth eye displacement. We suggest these results indicate that information arising from efference copies of saccadic and smooth pursuit systems are combined with the goal of adjusting eye position at target reappearance. Based on prior experimental evidence, we hypothesize that this spatial remapping is carried out through interactions between a number of identified neurophysiological structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
- Center for Systems Engineering and Applied Mechanics, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Brussels, Belgium
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